Friday, October 29, 2010
Thursday, October 28, 2010
Rocking Unwritten Law Lately, it just fits
I can feel the world upon my back, I got 16 people breathing down my neck
And it's kind of hard to keep your head afloat, but when the rain won't stop and you're face is soaked
But I'm all right, I'm all right
So just hang on cuz
I won't be long and
Just sing that song to me
Cuz I'm in love with you in love me
--Unwritten Law - Elva
Unwritten Law -- Up All Night
Can we talk about automatic satisfaction, sittin back relaxin floored
What's wrong with kickin it, when your bored and lit
Lets smoke some cigarettes and catch up on the back porch, fire up another roach
We don't need a rest this is just a test
Cuz we're all right, we're up all night
To see the sun come up again
Just one more time no reason why
To see the sun come up again.
The more we try to change the more we stay the same
We're caught up in the game and just like empty picture frames, so now we're to blame
Said we were gettin down on Genesee and Fountain, smelled another mountain
If you ain't gettin down you'll come around
And we're all right, we're up all night
To see the sun come up again
Just one more time, no reason why
To see the sun come up again.
So let's smoke some cigarettes and catch up on the back porch, fire up another roach
We don't need a rest, it's just a test, and as the world spins we'll watch it with a grin
And look in as the day begins, well now it's on again, it's dawn again.
And we're all right
We're up all night
To see the sun come up again
Just one more time, no reason why
To see the sun come up again.
Friday, October 22, 2010
Blahism: Language
Language
Language is what sets human beings apart from the rest of the animal world. While it is true that animals communicate with each other through sounds and gestures, and can even communicate with humans, they do not embody the same brain mechanisms and cognitive processes that give humans the ability to create and speak language. Certain properties define language, and there are different levels that elaborate the complexity of language. The discipline of cognitive psychology examines the role language plays in the processes of human brain function.
Definition of Language
Merriam-Webster defines language as “…a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings” (2010, para. 1). The properties of language are: Communicative, arbitrary, structured, generative, and dynamic (Willmingham, 2004). The communicative property of language allows communication between individuals. Animals are communicative in that they are able to signal others to alert them to the presence of food or danger. The arbitrary property of language pertains to the relationship between the elements of language and their meaning (Willmingham, 2004). The meaning of a sound or symbol is arbitrary; there is no specific reason why a word means something, it just does. “Hey you” could be an accusation, a greeting, or an attempt to get someone’s attention. Animal communication is also arbitrary; the bark of a dog could mean “what is that noise?” or it could also mean “I am bored, come play with me.” Animal communication may also be dynamic because new sounds can be added but each utterance is singular, and has only one meaning (Willmingham, 2004). Language is dynamic because the rules of grammar are always changing with the addition of new words.
Where human language differs from animal communication is in the structure and generativity of language. “Language is structured, meaning that the pattern of symbols is not arbitrary” (Willmingham, 2004, p. 411). The placement of words within a sentence is what gives the sentence meaning. “Will I now do homework?” asks a question, whereas “I will now do homework” makes a statement. The generative property of language means that new words can be added or combined to form a limitless number of meanings (Willmingham, 2004). Just as language is dynamic, and some languages die out and new ones are created, humans generate new meanings to words in existing languages.
Levels of Language
The four levels of language are: phonemes, words, sentences, and texts. A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech made up of individual sounds that “…roughly correspond to letters of the alphabet…” (Willmingham, 2004, p. 413). Phonemes also help to distinguish words from one another (Britannica, 2010). About 46 phonemes exist in the English language, though the exact number varies according to experts. There are variations of phonemes that are so close in sound that they are hardly distinguishable; these variations are called allophones (Willmingham, 2004). The different phonemes form together in various combinations to create words, of which there are around 600,000 in the English language. Phonemes must be presented in a structured format so that they make sense. For example, many words begin with stop consonants (p,b,d) which cause air to be stopped in the vocal tract; and words beginning with two stop consonants are against the rules in English (Willmingham, 2004). Sentences are strings of words put together to form a grammatically understandable statement. Sentences are a complex part of language as far as how humans generally perceive grammar. Acceptable sentence structure is different from one language to the next, but cognitive psychologists agree there must be some form of a universal grammar in the structure of sentences. As words are streams of phonemes, and sentences are strings of words, so are texts strings of sentences combined to produce paragraphs. And just like the previous levels of language, texts rely on a structured set of rules to make sense. A person can string together many sentences, but if the context in each sentence do not relate to one another, the text is incomprehensible.
Processing in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology focuses on “…language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, and psychology of reading” (Scholarpedia, 2010, para. 16). Cognitive psychologists study language, encoding and with access to the lexicon. The lexicon is the database of meanings of the sounds, gestures, and marks used in language. Willmingham defines lexicon as: “The mental dictionary, which has information stored about all the words a person knows. The lexicon stores the pronunciation, spelling, parts of speech of each word and has a pointer to another location in which the meaning is stored” (2004, p. 514). The brain hears the phoneme stream in speech, and compares the pronunciations with words in the lexicon. When the match is found for the phoneme stream, the cognitive system identifies the word, the spelling, and the meaning.
Other studies in the process of language include parsing and representation, which are sentence-level processes, concepts, gist, inference, and semantic assumptions, which are general processes (Scholarpedia, 2010). Scientists have also developed computational models for studying lexical systems, parsing systems, representation systems, and reading aloud. Advancements in technology and neuroscience have provided cognitive imaging as a means to study language processes, and the dysfunctions associated with language.
Conclusion
The use of different sounds and gestures to communicate thoughts to others, and have them understand the meanings, is the basic idea of language. Language is a complex cognitive process that is made up of different properties and levels, and that is unique to humans. While humans have the same abilities of communication as every other animal, the human brain evolved the ability to produce language, a separate form of communication. Language is communicative, arbitrary, structured, generative, and dynamic. Phonemes are the sounds that make up words, words combine to form sentences, and strings of sentences create texts. All four levels of language depend on a set of grammar rules and structure that give meaning to all the sounds and words. Pronunciation and spelling of words are stored in the lexicon, where the words are matched with meaning. Cognitive psychologists study the language processes with imaging techniques and computational models that aid in understanding the different systems associated with the lexicon, encoding, parsing, representation, and other general processes.
Encyclopedia Britannica (2010). Phoneme. Retrieved on June 7, 2010 from
http://www.reference.com/browse/phoneme
Merriam-Webster (2010). Language. Retrieved on June 4, 2010 from
http://www.merriam-webster.com/netdict/language
Scholarpedia (2010). Cognitive psychology. Retrieved on June 4, 2010 from
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_psychology
Wilminham, D. T. (2004). Cognition: The thinking animal. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Allyn & Bacon
Blahism: Cognitive Psychology
Definition of Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the study of how people gain and use knowledge. Cognitive psychologists seek to find the origin of knowledge and whether it is innate or gained through experience (Willmingham, 2007). The word “cognition” literally means “to know”; so, the study of human cognition focuses on mental abilities such as thinking, learning, and memory (Lu & Dosher, 2007). This paper will study the philosophical influence of, the addition of the scientific method to, and the assumptions made in cognitive psychology. Artificial intelligence and computer science are also deeply tied into cognitive psychology, and continue to be areas of interest and research.
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greek philosophers began pursuing knowledge and the sources of knowledge in the mind, and logged the first written records of those ideas. The written records of the time reflect the Greek philosophers’ ideas about how the mind works, namely how humans acquire knowledge (Willmingham, 2007). The ancient Greeks asked many questions, and developed many answers about how the mind works; however, it is not the answers, nor the questions that cognitive psychologists have found most useful. The greatest contributions of philosophy to cognitive psychology are the assumptions made that led to the questions being asked. Two types of assumptions are typically made by psychologists: which parts of the brain are significant enough to study; and that the questions and ideas that form during a study are influenced by the beliefs about something (Willmingham, 2007). The ancient Greek philosophers may not have had the right answers, or even the right questions; but seeking how knowledge is attained and used in the human mind, set the path for the future of cognitive science. The free-thinking style embodied by the ancient Greek philosophers led to the assumptions that “the world can be understood and predicted” because physical events are not the random actions of a god; “humans are part of the physical world,” which makes human behavior predictable; and events of this world can be explained within the defines of the physical world (Willmingham, 2007, p. 7).
Introduction of Scientific Method
The Renaissance, meaning “re-birth,” signifies the birth of intellectuality and modern science; scientists realized a greater understanding of the world was not only possible but also worth exploring (Willingham, 2007). With a new scientific method to experiment with, scientists could gain empirical knowledge based on observation in addition to contemplation and logic. Thus, during the Renaissance period scientists learned that the earth revolves around the sun, thanks to Copernicus; the relation of time, speed, and distance of falling objects was formulated by Galileo; and gravity was discovered by Isaac Newton (Willingham, 2007). The reasoning stage of contemplating a hypothesis is either proved or disproved by the results of observation. One can observe human behavior, but it was impossible to study the physical origins of such behavior. Because scientists of the 17th Century did not have magnetic resonance imaging or electroencephalograph machines to observe the inner workings of the mind, early physiological research contributed “…to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior (Cherry, 2010, para. 6). Now fast-forward 200-to-300 years to 1950s America, where behaviorism storms the field of psychology.
Behaviorism
In the early part of the 20th Century, following Edward B. Titchener’s structuralism and William James’ functionalism, behaviorism dominated the discipline of psychology. Behaviorism focuses on the relationship between objective and observable behavior to conditioned stimuli (Cherry, 2010). In this manner, behavior was studied systematically with no consideration of genetic influence in human behavior, which was ultimately the undoing of behaviorism. Behaviorists were correct in thinking that some behavior could be defined through environmental means based on positive or negative reinforcement; humans do gain knowledge from experience through the environment. That does not mean however, that humans do not also have knowledge that originates from innate factors. Behaviorism failed to account for fixed-action patterns and critical periods, both of which are functions attributed to the nervous system which does not only respond “…to reward or punishment following an action” (Willmingham, 2007, p. 23). Cognitive psychology is the answer to the questions left by behaviorism; such as the use of language and the ability to strategize.
Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence
With the decline of behaviorism, scientists broadened the field of psychology by introducing new theories to explain human behavior. Computer technology allowed a different view on the brain, and how humans perceive, memorize, and utilize information. Computers calculate information with representations and processes. For example, the computer brain “sees” everything from numbers to images represented as a series of one’s and zero’s; the computer then processes the representations and produces a perceptible image (Willmingham, 2007). Scientists studying artificial intelligence have figured that the human brain may function similarly to the representation and processing functions of a computer. Humans process information which is the basis of thought and behavior. Information processing is based on representations through the environment, and processes of the representations. Information processing, in the human brain and in the computer, takes place in different modules that pass information to and from each other. These assumptions, according to Willmingham (2007), outline the information processing metaphor in association with the study of the human mind.
Conclusion
Cognitive psychology was not always the focus of previous psychologists and philosophers, but the ideas that cognitive psychology represent always have been a subject of interest and study. Ancient Greek philosophers did not have the knowledge or resources to study the mind accurately; but they could begin the thought processes necessary to make educated assumptions that contributed to the development of the disciplines of science and psychology. The utilization of the scientific method to study human behavior took large strides in the future of psychology, especially in America where behaviorism was the ruling theory of psychology until the second part of the 20th Century. The idea that observable behavior is a result of conditioning and information learned through the environment, although a little close-minded, was an important step leading to the development of cognitive psychology. In addition to environmental factors, scientists take into consideration innate factors that affect behavior. Understanding how computers process information has had a tremendous effect on understanding the human brain, and continues to be relevant in the development of computer science and of cognitive psychology.
References
Cherry, K. (2010). The origins of psychology. About.com. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychistory.htm
Cherry, K. (2010). What is behaviorism? About.com. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm
Lu, Z. L. & Dosher, B. A. (2007). Cognitive psychology. Scholarpedia. Retrieved from
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_psychology
Willmingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Blahism: Phineas Gage & Cognitive Function
Phineas Gage and Cognitive Function
The brain is responsible for how humans think, learn, remember, see, hear, and speak. The decisions made based on these perceptions are responsible for a person’s behavior and emotional reactions. The decision making process is a complex brain function that takes place via interconnected neurons throughout the cerebral cortex. The brain makes predictions about the appropriate responses to stimuli based on learned experience from previous outcomes. The inability to predict the consequences of an action results in poor decision-making behavior insensitive to all outcomes. Railroad worker Phineas Gage survived extreme damage to the prefrontal cortex of his brain; after his recovery he continued life with the physical and most intellectual skills intact. The damage to Gage’s brain did cause major changes in his behavior, though.
Cerebral Cortex
“Perception, attention, emotion, planning and action, learning and memory, thinking, language and all other aspects of cognition all take place in the brain” (CNBC, 2009, para. 1). Cognitive function depends on the many subregions of the cerebral cortex, namely, the thalamus, amygdala, caudate and putamen, hippocampus, and cerebellum (Willmingham, 2007). Some of these structures, such as the caudate and putamen, are associated with more obscure cognitive functions, so the focus here will be on the amygdala, which is an important part in processing emotional information; and the hippocampus, which is involved in storing and retrieving memories. Advances in technology have allowed scientists an inside look at cognitive function in these areas of the brain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) are imaging techniques that show brain activity quite clearly. Scientists use these images to compare normal and dysfunctional brains; and create computer simulations of functions in the brain after simulated damage, so that they can better understand the behavioral deficits a patient experiences after brain injury or damage (CNBC, 2009). Understanding how normal and dysfunctional brains operate cognitive function will help researchers develop new ways to treat patients with severe brain damage because of injury or other brain-deteriorating disorders. Perhaps the most famous case in cognitive psychology is that of Phineas Gage, a railroad worker who miraculously survived a freak accident. Gage’s story has left an enormous amount of information for neurologists and psychologists regarding cognitive function.
Phineas Gage
In 1848 while working on the railroads in Vermont, Phineas Gage detonated an accidental explosion that launched his tamping iron, a three-foot long solid steel bar, through his cheekbone and out through the top of his head; irreparably damaging the left side of his brain in the frontal area. The area of the brain believed to be damaged was Gage’s ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) (Wagar & Thagard, 2004). Before his accident Gage worked as a foreman, and was considered to be efficient, well-balanced, and a successful businessman. Although Gage recovered physically enough to go back to work, he had become “…fitful, irreverent, and grossly profane, showing little deference for his fellow coworkers…” (Wagner & Thagard, 2004, p. 68). Contractors, who worked with Gage previously, were reluctant to rehire him after the accident, mostly because he was no longer efficient in making decisions regarding his own building plans, but also because of his unpredictable and irritable behavior. It is clear that the damage to Gage’s brain left him with a severe cognitive deficit, unable to control his inhibitions and emotional reactions. Simon Gerhand states that damage to the posterior regions of the brain produce obvious dysfunction of cognitive ability, whereas damage to the frontal region usually does not affect intellectual function so much as it changes a person’s behavior, as was the case with Phineas Gage (1999). Anyone who ever met Phineas Gage after his accident would probably never know there was anything wrong with him; accept maybe that he was kind of a jerk, which are qualities that many people embody without damage to their brains. To the people that knew Gage, though, he was a completely different person after the accident, which left a strain on his professional and personal relationships.
Dysfunction of the Cortex
Damage to the prefrontal cortex can have negative effects on cognitive abilities such as planning, reasoning, and problem-solving. Prefrontal dysfunction is also prevalent in affective disorders such as schizophrenia, whereas ventromedial lesions show a dysfunction in the ability to “…experience appropriate emotional responses…,” which can impair decision-making (Gerhand, 1999, para. 2). Neuronal activity in the cortex is fueled by the experiences humans gain through the environment; the information is taken in, delivered, and processed by the interconnected neurons (CNBC, 2009). Somatic markers in the VMPFC convert emotional signals that influence decision-making by outlining positive and negative actions, and highlighting the options with the predicted highest positive outcomes. The predictions are based on memories of previous outcomes, which influence the prevalence of a positive or negative prediction. In a normal brain the amygdala, in association with the VMPFC, helps form memory traces, which enable a person to predict the outcome of an emotional response (Wagar & Thagard, 2004). The data produced by the correspondence between the VMPFC and the amygdala is forwarded to the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) where it is analyzed to be a correct response, and sent to the motor areas of the cortex to produce an emotional reaction (Wagar & Thagard, 2004). The NAcc acts as a gateway unlocked by the hippocampus, and which allows access to the VMPFC and the amygdala during the processing of somatic markers.
Conclusion
People like Phineas Gage that have experienced damage to the VMPFC lose the ability of communication through the NAcc gateway, which inhibits the process of somatic markers; thus retarding the ability “…to integrate cognitive and emotional information to discern the future consequences…” of one’s actions (Wagar & Thagard, 2004, p. 67). With the help of technology, scientists can explore the effects of damage to the frontal cortex on behavior, reasoning, and decision-making abilities. Dysfunctional behavior prompts the study of the origins of the behavior, and understanding why humans behave in certain ways can produce solutions to dysfunctional behavior. Understanding the origins of cognitive functions enables researchers to specify the areas of the brain responsible for different functions, which provides an avenue for the research of treatments to rectify cognitive dysfunction.
References
Gerhand, S. (1999). Book review: The prefrontal cortex—executive and cognitive functions.
Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 122(5), pp. 994-995. Oxford University Press. Retrieved
From http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/122/5/994
The Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition (CNBC): Integrating the Sciences of Mind and
Brain. (2009). Research in the CNBC. Retrieved from http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu.research
Wagar, B. M., & Thagard, P. (2004). Spiking phineas gage: A neurocomputational theory of
Cognitive-affective integration in decision making. Psychological Review, 111(1).
Retrieved from http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/spiking.pdf
Willmingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Tuesday, October 19, 2010
Blahism: Classical Conditioning in Real Life
(my super-cool graph that took me forever to make did not show up, so, that's a bummer)
Classical Conditioning
The theory of classical conditioning is based on the idea that behavior that is natural can be modified with a conditioned stimulus that will produce an unnatural response. An unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned, or natural, response. A conditioned, or neutral, stimulus is introduced and causes a conditioned, or unnatural, response to the neutral stimulus. The theory of classical conditioning is part of the foundation of the science of behavior, and is an important element in understanding human behavior. Examples of classical conditioning relevant to modern psychology are evident in everyday life, in every species.
Theory of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a series of experiments that modifies behavior according to a conditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. An unconditioned stimulus “…elicits a natural and automatic response…” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 167). A conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus that “…does not elicit a natural and automatic response…” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 167). The most popular example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov’s dogs. A dog is given food, which is the unconditioned stimulus. In response to the presentation of food the dog salivates, which is the unconditioned response. After so many times of presenting the food with the sound of the bell, which is a conditioned stimulus, the natural salivation becomes consistent in response to the sound of the bell. With classical conditioning the subject has no control over the reinforcement based on the responses given as a result of the stimuli (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
In real life, outside the laboratory, classical conditioning is evident in many situations. While clicker training a dog, for example, a trainer will speak a command, such as sit, while pushing the clicker. When the dog performs the action of sitting he is rewarded with a treat. After so many times of hearing the clicker with the verbal sit command, the dog will associate the sit command with the clicker. The verbal command is the unconditioned stimulus; and the unconditioned response is the action of sitting. The conditioned stimulus is the sound of clicker presented with the verbal sit command, which will produce a conditioned response, the action of sitting in response to the conditioned stimulus (the clicker) without the presence of the verbal sit command. Another example of classical conditioning is spanking a child with a wooden spoon (this action, however, is not a recommended method of discipline). The unconditioned stimulus is the spanking and the unconditioned response is fear. When the child colors on the wall with her crayons, the mother spanks the child with the wooden spoon (conditioned stimulus), eliciting an unconditioned response of fear and pain. Every time the child misbehaves, the mother spanks her with the wooden spoon. Eventually the child will associate the wooden spoon (conditioned stimulus) with getting spanked, and even the sight of the wooden spoon will elicit the feelings of fear (conditioned response).
Bumps in the Road
On most highways and interstates across the country there are grooves embedded in the asphalt on the shoulder of the road that cause the tires of a vehicle to make a loud rumbling sound. The purpose of these bumps, or grooves, is to alert sleepy drivers, or drivers who are not paying attention, that they are about to drive off the highway. Allen and Theresa are taking a long road trip home after vacation. They are limited on time and decide that Allen will drive all night while Theresa sleeps; and Theresa will take over driving in the morning so Allen can sleep. They have their two small children in the truck, and are towing a heavy trailer home. The weather is stormy all night long, with wind, rain, lightning, and thunder blustering all around. Each time the wind blows hard the trailer sways, causing the truck to veer onto the shoulder of the road. Each time the truck veers onto the shoulder, the sound of the tires rumbling on the grooves jolts Theresa awake. Startled she thinks to herself each time “at least those bumps do their job!” Early the next morning, less than halfway home, Theresa awakens to the sound of the grooves and watches as the truck veers into the sand and gravel median, jackknifes sideways, and rolls completely over. After the accident, and subsequent emergency room visit for minor injuries, Allen and Theresa rent a moving truck, load up their children and the remains of their belongings, and drive home.
Allen drives all night home, and every bump in the road and every transition from asphalt to concrete (for example when crossing over a bridge) produce feelings of nervousness and slight fear in Theresa. Hearing the sound of tires on the grooves, even from other vehicles, cause severe anxiety. Theresa is conditioned to respond to the noises on the road with fear because she associates the noises with the traumatic accident. Common driving conditions become triggers that alter her behavior. This is an extreme example of classical conditioning.
Application of Classical Conditioning Theory
The chart below shows the amount of fear Theresa experienced while riding in a vehicle before and after the accident. The level of fear is on a scale of one to four, with one being a neutral response and four being extreme fear and anxiety. The grooves in the road represent the unconditioned stimulus in the theory of classical conditioning. The loud sounds the tires make elicit a natural response, which is to be startled awake. The conditioned stimulus is the accident, which is associated with the sound of the grooves. In response to the conditioned stimulus Theresa’s behavior becomes unnatural, which is waking in terror at the sound of the grooves, and being frightened in response to other loud noises.
Conclusion
Instinctual behavior can be changed and shaped by outside stimuli in everyday circumstances, such as a cat associating the sound of the can opener with food. Classical conditioning is a theory that can be related to modern science and common occurrences. Understanding how classical conditioning works helps psychologists recognize the sources of, and modify their patients’ negative behavior. Someone like Theresa could benefit from positive conditioning, and re-associating the unconditioned stimulus with a more natural response.
Reference
Olson, M.H. & Hergenhahn, B.R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Classical Conditioning
The theory of classical conditioning is based on the idea that behavior that is natural can be modified with a conditioned stimulus that will produce an unnatural response. An unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned, or natural, response. A conditioned, or neutral, stimulus is introduced and causes a conditioned, or unnatural, response to the neutral stimulus. The theory of classical conditioning is part of the foundation of the science of behavior, and is an important element in understanding human behavior. Examples of classical conditioning relevant to modern psychology are evident in everyday life, in every species.
Theory of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a series of experiments that modifies behavior according to a conditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. An unconditioned stimulus “…elicits a natural and automatic response…” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 167). A conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus that “…does not elicit a natural and automatic response…” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 167). The most popular example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov’s dogs. A dog is given food, which is the unconditioned stimulus. In response to the presentation of food the dog salivates, which is the unconditioned response. After so many times of presenting the food with the sound of the bell, which is a conditioned stimulus, the natural salivation becomes consistent in response to the sound of the bell. With classical conditioning the subject has no control over the reinforcement based on the responses given as a result of the stimuli (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
In real life, outside the laboratory, classical conditioning is evident in many situations. While clicker training a dog, for example, a trainer will speak a command, such as sit, while pushing the clicker. When the dog performs the action of sitting he is rewarded with a treat. After so many times of hearing the clicker with the verbal sit command, the dog will associate the sit command with the clicker. The verbal command is the unconditioned stimulus; and the unconditioned response is the action of sitting. The conditioned stimulus is the sound of clicker presented with the verbal sit command, which will produce a conditioned response, the action of sitting in response to the conditioned stimulus (the clicker) without the presence of the verbal sit command. Another example of classical conditioning is spanking a child with a wooden spoon (this action, however, is not a recommended method of discipline). The unconditioned stimulus is the spanking and the unconditioned response is fear. When the child colors on the wall with her crayons, the mother spanks the child with the wooden spoon (conditioned stimulus), eliciting an unconditioned response of fear and pain. Every time the child misbehaves, the mother spanks her with the wooden spoon. Eventually the child will associate the wooden spoon (conditioned stimulus) with getting spanked, and even the sight of the wooden spoon will elicit the feelings of fear (conditioned response).
Bumps in the Road
On most highways and interstates across the country there are grooves embedded in the asphalt on the shoulder of the road that cause the tires of a vehicle to make a loud rumbling sound. The purpose of these bumps, or grooves, is to alert sleepy drivers, or drivers who are not paying attention, that they are about to drive off the highway. Allen and Theresa are taking a long road trip home after vacation. They are limited on time and decide that Allen will drive all night while Theresa sleeps; and Theresa will take over driving in the morning so Allen can sleep. They have their two small children in the truck, and are towing a heavy trailer home. The weather is stormy all night long, with wind, rain, lightning, and thunder blustering all around. Each time the wind blows hard the trailer sways, causing the truck to veer onto the shoulder of the road. Each time the truck veers onto the shoulder, the sound of the tires rumbling on the grooves jolts Theresa awake. Startled she thinks to herself each time “at least those bumps do their job!” Early the next morning, less than halfway home, Theresa awakens to the sound of the grooves and watches as the truck veers into the sand and gravel median, jackknifes sideways, and rolls completely over. After the accident, and subsequent emergency room visit for minor injuries, Allen and Theresa rent a moving truck, load up their children and the remains of their belongings, and drive home.
Allen drives all night home, and every bump in the road and every transition from asphalt to concrete (for example when crossing over a bridge) produce feelings of nervousness and slight fear in Theresa. Hearing the sound of tires on the grooves, even from other vehicles, cause severe anxiety. Theresa is conditioned to respond to the noises on the road with fear because she associates the noises with the traumatic accident. Common driving conditions become triggers that alter her behavior. This is an extreme example of classical conditioning.
Application of Classical Conditioning Theory
The chart below shows the amount of fear Theresa experienced while riding in a vehicle before and after the accident. The level of fear is on a scale of one to four, with one being a neutral response and four being extreme fear and anxiety. The grooves in the road represent the unconditioned stimulus in the theory of classical conditioning. The loud sounds the tires make elicit a natural response, which is to be startled awake. The conditioned stimulus is the accident, which is associated with the sound of the grooves. In response to the conditioned stimulus Theresa’s behavior becomes unnatural, which is waking in terror at the sound of the grooves, and being frightened in response to other loud noises.
Conclusion
Instinctual behavior can be changed and shaped by outside stimuli in everyday circumstances, such as a cat associating the sound of the can opener with food. Classical conditioning is a theory that can be related to modern science and common occurrences. Understanding how classical conditioning works helps psychologists recognize the sources of, and modify their patients’ negative behavior. Someone like Theresa could benefit from positive conditioning, and re-associating the unconditioned stimulus with a more natural response.
Reference
Olson, M.H. & Hergenhahn, B.R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Tuesday, August 3, 2010
Monday, August 2, 2010
Blond Joke of the Day
Two blonds were sitting on the river bank, one on each side. One blond yells across to the other blond "Hey! How do I get to the other side?" The other blond yells back "You ARE on the other side!"
Friday, July 30, 2010
Blond Joke of the Day
Two blonds living in California were sitting on a bench talking when one blond asks the other "...which do you think is farther away... Florida or the moon?"
"duh..." says the other blond "... can you SEE Florida?"
"duh..." says the other blond "... can you SEE Florida?"
So. Ok, then. Well, there's that.
Please, please, please check out this website. I would like to say this is fake, but... actually it's more entertaining knowing it's real...
this is only a test
Just seeing if I can extend my annoying ranting beyond my desktop. Coming to you live from Blackberry Nation.
Time
I know I've received this email many times, and you have probably seen it before, but it's good to see it again, now and then.
To realize
The value of a sister/brother
Ask someone
Who doesn't have one.
To realize
The value of ten years:
Ask a newly
Divorced couple.
To realize
The value of four years:
Ask a graduate.
To realize
The value of one year:
Ask a student who
Has failed a final exam.
To realize
The value of nine months:
Ask a mother who gave birth to a stillborn.
To realize
The value of one month:
Ask a mother
Who has given birth to:
A premature baby.
To realize
The value of one week::
Ask an editor of a weekly newspaper.
To realize
The value of one minute:
Ask a person
Who has missed the a train, bus or plane.
To realize
The value of one-second:
Ask a person
Who has survived an accident.
Time waits for no one.
Treasure every moment you have.
To realize
The value of a sister/brother
Ask someone
Who doesn't have one.
To realize
The value of ten years:
Ask a newly
Divorced couple.
To realize
The value of four years:
Ask a graduate.
To realize
The value of one year:
Ask a student who
Has failed a final exam.
To realize
The value of nine months:
Ask a mother who gave birth to a stillborn.
To realize
The value of one month:
Ask a mother
Who has given birth to:
A premature baby.
To realize
The value of one week::
Ask an editor of a weekly newspaper.
To realize
The value of one minute:
Ask a person
Who has missed the a train, bus or plane.
To realize
The value of one-second:
Ask a person
Who has survived an accident.
Time waits for no one.
Treasure every moment you have.
Saturday, July 25, 2009
Blahism: Foundations of Psychology
Foundations of Psychology
Four major schools of thought embody the foundations of psychology: Psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, and evolutionary. Scientists use these different perspectives to understand the how and why of human behavior, since one correct way to define or interpret psychology has not yet been invented. Behavioral neuroscience, or biopsychology, is another tool scientists use to understand the inner workings of the mind (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 4). A person’s behavior can be explained by different systems in the body, including: Neurons, the endocrine system, nervous systems, and a person’s individual genetic makeup.
Major Schools of Thought
The psychodynamic perspective assumes that a person’s behavior is based on how they think, feel, or what they want. Often, the action associated with these thoughts and feelings are “outside of conscious awareness” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 11). The psychodynamic theory suggests opposition is usually apparent between a person’s true thoughts and feelings, and the behavior outwardly expressed. Psychodynamic psychologists use psychoanalysis to gain information about a person’s inner self by studying the things they do and say. Psychodynamic analysis shows that “people reveal themselves in everything they do” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p.12).
The idea that behavior is controlled by learning from experiences, from objects in one’s environment, and from external stimuli is the perspective of behaviorism. Behavioral science is an experimental science, and behavioral therapists are still learning how this science can help people control their behavior. The study of behaviorism has been beneficial to people seeking to “quit smoking or drinking” because these are learned behaviors that can be unlearned (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 15). A classic example of the behaviorist perspective is the experiments performed by Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) in which he was studying the relation of salivation and the digestive system of dogs (PBS, 1998). His dogs learned that meals were accompanied by a certain sound and, after time, would begin to salivate upon hearing this sound.
People’s brains work in a way that is similar to how a computer attains, stores, and reproduces information. The cognitive perspective refers to the way that people react to situations, how their brains process memories for storage and use, and how they exhibit problem-solving skills. Cognitive therapy is one of the most popular forms of modern therapy used by psychologists today. The evolutionary perspective can be defined by certain human behaviors that are a part of our nature, and stem from the desire to survive and preserve our species. Nature and nurture responses are delegated to the evolutionary perspective, as is the fight or flight responses.
Biological Foundations of Psychology
The Encyclopedia of Psychology defines the Nervous System as “an electrochemical conducting network that transmits messages from the brain through the nerves to locations throughout the body” (Strickland, 2001). The nervous system is responsible for many processes, including the manifestation of our psychological behavior. Three types of neurons can be found that aid in the function of the nervous system: sensory, motor, and interneurons. The information delivered to the brain from the receptors in the body is responsible for relaying sensations, such as pain or delight. Motor neurons carry information that helps the brain regulate motor movement. The motor movements can be voluntary or can happen without us thinking about it, like “digestion and heartbeat” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 62).
Neurons receive their information from dendrites, the “branchlike extensions of the neuron” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Information is delivered between neurons via synapses, where the information is carried through the axon, “a long extension from the cell body,” to the dendrites (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Neurotransmitters are the information, or the “chemical messages” that are transmitted between the cells. Glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine (Ach), and endorphins are all types of neurotransmitters that are responsible for different feelings and emotions that humans have (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 68).
“The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 71). The chemicals delivered from the glands are hormones. The different glands which house the hormones are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, testes, and ovaries. Hormones, like neurotransmitters, are responsible for different chemical reactions in our bodies that can provoke actions, like creating eggs in women for fertilization, and growth in children and teenagers. An imbalance of hormones in our bodies can have a negative effect on our feelings and moods.
Kowalski and Westen mention that the endocrine system plays a key role in our psychological makeup, but “the center of our psychological experience is the nervous system” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 73). The central and the peripheral nervous system make up the two parts to the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, and the peripheral system is comprised of the neurons that transmit information to the central nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord, hindbrain (medulla oblongata, reticular activating system, cerebellum), midbrain (tectum, tegmentum), subcortical forebrain (hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, amygdala, hippocampus, basal ganglia), and the cerebral cortex (Occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal lobes). These systems intricately work with one another to keep us alive and upright, awake or asleep, aware or dreaming, and happy or sad.
Lastly, genetics and evolution play a major role in how humans behave. Human beings share half of our father’s DNA and half of our mother’s DNA. The genes we get from our parents can “influence both intellectual functioning and personality” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 91). The evolutionary perspective is supported by the evolution of genetics, in that it directly relates to nature/nurture responses and is responsible for natural selection. The stronger genes that contribute to survival are the genes that survive and ultimately get passed down through generations.
Along with the evolutionary perspective, psychodynamic, behaviorist, and cognitive perspectives are the foundations of psychology. Psychologists all over the world study these perspectives, and each theory has specialists devoted it. To better understand human behavior, scientists have turned to what is inside the body that affects our psychology. With the aid of neurotransmitters, hormones, and DNA, scientists are acquiring a better understanding of why we are the way we are, as human beings, and as individuals.
References
Kowalski, R.M., & Westen, D. (2005). Psychology, 4e.
PBS. (1998). People and discoveries. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpavl.html
Strickland, B.R. (2001). Nervous system. Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2nd ed. Gale
Cengage. eNotes.com. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.enotes.com/gale-psychology-encyclopedia/nervous-system
Four major schools of thought embody the foundations of psychology: Psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, and evolutionary. Scientists use these different perspectives to understand the how and why of human behavior, since one correct way to define or interpret psychology has not yet been invented. Behavioral neuroscience, or biopsychology, is another tool scientists use to understand the inner workings of the mind (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 4). A person’s behavior can be explained by different systems in the body, including: Neurons, the endocrine system, nervous systems, and a person’s individual genetic makeup.
Major Schools of Thought
The psychodynamic perspective assumes that a person’s behavior is based on how they think, feel, or what they want. Often, the action associated with these thoughts and feelings are “outside of conscious awareness” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 11). The psychodynamic theory suggests opposition is usually apparent between a person’s true thoughts and feelings, and the behavior outwardly expressed. Psychodynamic psychologists use psychoanalysis to gain information about a person’s inner self by studying the things they do and say. Psychodynamic analysis shows that “people reveal themselves in everything they do” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p.12).
The idea that behavior is controlled by learning from experiences, from objects in one’s environment, and from external stimuli is the perspective of behaviorism. Behavioral science is an experimental science, and behavioral therapists are still learning how this science can help people control their behavior. The study of behaviorism has been beneficial to people seeking to “quit smoking or drinking” because these are learned behaviors that can be unlearned (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 15). A classic example of the behaviorist perspective is the experiments performed by Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) in which he was studying the relation of salivation and the digestive system of dogs (PBS, 1998). His dogs learned that meals were accompanied by a certain sound and, after time, would begin to salivate upon hearing this sound.
People’s brains work in a way that is similar to how a computer attains, stores, and reproduces information. The cognitive perspective refers to the way that people react to situations, how their brains process memories for storage and use, and how they exhibit problem-solving skills. Cognitive therapy is one of the most popular forms of modern therapy used by psychologists today. The evolutionary perspective can be defined by certain human behaviors that are a part of our nature, and stem from the desire to survive and preserve our species. Nature and nurture responses are delegated to the evolutionary perspective, as is the fight or flight responses.
Biological Foundations of Psychology
The Encyclopedia of Psychology defines the Nervous System as “an electrochemical conducting network that transmits messages from the brain through the nerves to locations throughout the body” (Strickland, 2001). The nervous system is responsible for many processes, including the manifestation of our psychological behavior. Three types of neurons can be found that aid in the function of the nervous system: sensory, motor, and interneurons. The information delivered to the brain from the receptors in the body is responsible for relaying sensations, such as pain or delight. Motor neurons carry information that helps the brain regulate motor movement. The motor movements can be voluntary or can happen without us thinking about it, like “digestion and heartbeat” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 62).
Neurons receive their information from dendrites, the “branchlike extensions of the neuron” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Information is delivered between neurons via synapses, where the information is carried through the axon, “a long extension from the cell body,” to the dendrites (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Neurotransmitters are the information, or the “chemical messages” that are transmitted between the cells. Glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine (Ach), and endorphins are all types of neurotransmitters that are responsible for different feelings and emotions that humans have (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 68).
“The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 71). The chemicals delivered from the glands are hormones. The different glands which house the hormones are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, testes, and ovaries. Hormones, like neurotransmitters, are responsible for different chemical reactions in our bodies that can provoke actions, like creating eggs in women for fertilization, and growth in children and teenagers. An imbalance of hormones in our bodies can have a negative effect on our feelings and moods.
Kowalski and Westen mention that the endocrine system plays a key role in our psychological makeup, but “the center of our psychological experience is the nervous system” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 73). The central and the peripheral nervous system make up the two parts to the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, and the peripheral system is comprised of the neurons that transmit information to the central nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord, hindbrain (medulla oblongata, reticular activating system, cerebellum), midbrain (tectum, tegmentum), subcortical forebrain (hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, amygdala, hippocampus, basal ganglia), and the cerebral cortex (Occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal lobes). These systems intricately work with one another to keep us alive and upright, awake or asleep, aware or dreaming, and happy or sad.
Lastly, genetics and evolution play a major role in how humans behave. Human beings share half of our father’s DNA and half of our mother’s DNA. The genes we get from our parents can “influence both intellectual functioning and personality” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 91). The evolutionary perspective is supported by the evolution of genetics, in that it directly relates to nature/nurture responses and is responsible for natural selection. The stronger genes that contribute to survival are the genes that survive and ultimately get passed down through generations.
Along with the evolutionary perspective, psychodynamic, behaviorist, and cognitive perspectives are the foundations of psychology. Psychologists all over the world study these perspectives, and each theory has specialists devoted it. To better understand human behavior, scientists have turned to what is inside the body that affects our psychology. With the aid of neurotransmitters, hormones, and DNA, scientists are acquiring a better understanding of why we are the way we are, as human beings, and as individuals.
References
Kowalski, R.M., & Westen, D. (2005). Psychology, 4e.
PBS. (1998). People and discoveries. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpavl.html
Strickland, B.R. (2001). Nervous system. Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2nd ed. Gale
Cengage. eNotes.com. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.enotes.com/gale-psychology-encyclopedia/nervous-system
Wednesday, July 22, 2009
Blahism: Research Strategy for Procrastinators
Procrastination
Staring at a blank screen will not produce an essay. Thinking about something can lead to action, but only if the motivation and efforts are there. An assignment may seem daunting at times; so, how does one hurdle the jump of doubt and procrastination to cross the line into production? The best way to tackle procrastination is by making a plan, knowing what step to take next, and following through. What is procrastination, and how does it affect a student’s ability to research and complete assignments?
Procrastination is defined by Wikipedia as “a behavior which is characterized by the deferment of actions or tasks” (2009). Procrastination is a behavior, which is a characteristic that some people have that prevents them from accomplishing tasks in a timely manner. Students have long suffered academically from procrastination, whether it is a result of fear, doubt, perfectionism, or simply not knowing how to do something (Carter, et. al., 2007, Ch. 1). Procrastination is a learned behavior and it is not something that can easily be unlearned. “Telling someone who procrastinates to buy a weekly planner is like telling someone with chronic depression to just cheer up” (Ferrari, J., 2003). So, you know you have a paper due, what is the next step?
Make a Plan
The next step is to figure out what you need to do to accomplish this task. What are the teacher’s specific instructions? Identify an objective and write it down on paper, or type it into a Word document. Sometimes just getting started is enough to get the creative juices flowing; if you can get just a few words on paper that is a step in the right direction. Stay focused, do not stray from the topic; this is why it is good to have the objective written down. If you are writing a paper on Leonardo Da Vinci’s artistic abilities, do not waste time researching his supposed involvement in secret societies. The first draft does not have to be perfect, just get the words on the paper and you can always go back and fix mistakes or rewrite sentences. Do not set unreasonable goals for yourself, do not expect perfection, and take breaks frequently so you do not get overwhelmed. Now you have your objective written down, so, what now?
What’s Next?
It is time to research information for your paper; do not get scared, this is actually going to help you come up with ideas for writing. The University of Phoenix Online degree program has available for student use an online University Library. This library is the foundation of a multitude of useful information. Log on to the student homepage and click the link for the University Library. There is a search bar you can type your topic directly into that will search all databases of the library. You can also search one database at a time, or view only peer-reviewed articles. If you are having any problems finding information, there is a link to ask the librarian a question. Do not be afraid to ask for help when you need it.
Type in key words for your topic, such as: “the Vietnam War”, “AIDS in Africa”, or “effects of technology on modern society”. If you do not find what you are looking for on the first try, revise your wording to get different search results. For example: the Vietnam War is a broad subject, try typing in “Tet Offensive”, “Kent State”, or “Lyndon B. Johnson”. Many results will show up, now you just need to do some reading and decide which articles you will reference in your paper. Do not only look for articles that match your opinion. It is a good idea to get both sides of the argument so you have the most information on the subject you are researching. Sometimes, having the opposing opinion will help you to formulate questions and answers supporting your own theory. Do not be afraid to use major search engines like Google to do research, but make sure what you are reading is accurate information on the subject.
Determining Validity
Obviously you cannot believe everything you read; this especially applies to information on the internet. Be careful when researching outside the University Library. When using the World Wide Web, enlist the agency most qualified to dictate information on a particular subject. “Individuals, businesses, government agencies, universities, and professional agencies all produce lists covering Web resources in their areas of interest and expertise” (Goett & Foote, 2000). Often, these agencies will have links on their Web sites to other accredited sites with useful information. Look for information in numbers, there will generally be many Web sites with similar information on one subject. Do not trust Web sites that do not have authority or references. Use your critical thinking skills to determine if a Web site is credible or not. For example: An article from a government Web site on the U.S. economy would be better than a Web site detailing predictions of the economy based on what the aliens who abducted me said. Your common sense is going to be a useful tool when doing research.
Application of Knowledge in Real Life
The required reading for GEN200 is a great resource that can be used in future classes. Knowing whether or not you are a procrastinator can help you to find ways to overcome your problem and lead a productive life. Keys to College Studying: Becoming an Active Thinker (2nd ed.), Chapters 1, 2, and 3 are efficient in providing tools for time management, knowing your learning styles and how best to develop them, and tools for creative and critical thinking. The University Library is a flourishing well of knowledge to aid in any kind of research project.
These resources leave little excuse for procrastination, so the only thing stopping you is you. Do not be afraid, do not expect perfection, just get started and do it. Eliminate procrastination in your studies even if you cannot eliminate it from your life. Make a plan, find the objective, and follow through to the end. Look ahead and know what your next step will be. Utilize your knowledge to enhance your thinking skills, and stick to the objective. Above all else, just remember: You can do this!
References
Carter, C., Bishop, J., & Kravits, S. (2007). Keys to college studying: Becoming an active
thinker (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Goett, J., & Foote, K. (2000). Cultivating student research and study skills in Web-based
learning environments. Retrieved from
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/pqdlink?did=59614022&sid=2&Fmt=4&clientld=13118&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Marano, H.E. (2003). Procrastination: Ten things to know. Psychology Today. Retrieved
July 8, 2009, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/node/24800
Wikipedia. (2009). Procrastination. Retrieved July 8, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination
Staring at a blank screen will not produce an essay. Thinking about something can lead to action, but only if the motivation and efforts are there. An assignment may seem daunting at times; so, how does one hurdle the jump of doubt and procrastination to cross the line into production? The best way to tackle procrastination is by making a plan, knowing what step to take next, and following through. What is procrastination, and how does it affect a student’s ability to research and complete assignments?
Procrastination is defined by Wikipedia as “a behavior which is characterized by the deferment of actions or tasks” (2009). Procrastination is a behavior, which is a characteristic that some people have that prevents them from accomplishing tasks in a timely manner. Students have long suffered academically from procrastination, whether it is a result of fear, doubt, perfectionism, or simply not knowing how to do something (Carter, et. al., 2007, Ch. 1). Procrastination is a learned behavior and it is not something that can easily be unlearned. “Telling someone who procrastinates to buy a weekly planner is like telling someone with chronic depression to just cheer up” (Ferrari, J., 2003). So, you know you have a paper due, what is the next step?
Make a Plan
The next step is to figure out what you need to do to accomplish this task. What are the teacher’s specific instructions? Identify an objective and write it down on paper, or type it into a Word document. Sometimes just getting started is enough to get the creative juices flowing; if you can get just a few words on paper that is a step in the right direction. Stay focused, do not stray from the topic; this is why it is good to have the objective written down. If you are writing a paper on Leonardo Da Vinci’s artistic abilities, do not waste time researching his supposed involvement in secret societies. The first draft does not have to be perfect, just get the words on the paper and you can always go back and fix mistakes or rewrite sentences. Do not set unreasonable goals for yourself, do not expect perfection, and take breaks frequently so you do not get overwhelmed. Now you have your objective written down, so, what now?
What’s Next?
It is time to research information for your paper; do not get scared, this is actually going to help you come up with ideas for writing. The University of Phoenix Online degree program has available for student use an online University Library. This library is the foundation of a multitude of useful information. Log on to the student homepage and click the link for the University Library. There is a search bar you can type your topic directly into that will search all databases of the library. You can also search one database at a time, or view only peer-reviewed articles. If you are having any problems finding information, there is a link to ask the librarian a question. Do not be afraid to ask for help when you need it.
Type in key words for your topic, such as: “the Vietnam War”, “AIDS in Africa”, or “effects of technology on modern society”. If you do not find what you are looking for on the first try, revise your wording to get different search results. For example: the Vietnam War is a broad subject, try typing in “Tet Offensive”, “Kent State”, or “Lyndon B. Johnson”. Many results will show up, now you just need to do some reading and decide which articles you will reference in your paper. Do not only look for articles that match your opinion. It is a good idea to get both sides of the argument so you have the most information on the subject you are researching. Sometimes, having the opposing opinion will help you to formulate questions and answers supporting your own theory. Do not be afraid to use major search engines like Google to do research, but make sure what you are reading is accurate information on the subject.
Determining Validity
Obviously you cannot believe everything you read; this especially applies to information on the internet. Be careful when researching outside the University Library. When using the World Wide Web, enlist the agency most qualified to dictate information on a particular subject. “Individuals, businesses, government agencies, universities, and professional agencies all produce lists covering Web resources in their areas of interest and expertise” (Goett & Foote, 2000). Often, these agencies will have links on their Web sites to other accredited sites with useful information. Look for information in numbers, there will generally be many Web sites with similar information on one subject. Do not trust Web sites that do not have authority or references. Use your critical thinking skills to determine if a Web site is credible or not. For example: An article from a government Web site on the U.S. economy would be better than a Web site detailing predictions of the economy based on what the aliens who abducted me said. Your common sense is going to be a useful tool when doing research.
Application of Knowledge in Real Life
The required reading for GEN200 is a great resource that can be used in future classes. Knowing whether or not you are a procrastinator can help you to find ways to overcome your problem and lead a productive life. Keys to College Studying: Becoming an Active Thinker (2nd ed.), Chapters 1, 2, and 3 are efficient in providing tools for time management, knowing your learning styles and how best to develop them, and tools for creative and critical thinking. The University Library is a flourishing well of knowledge to aid in any kind of research project.
These resources leave little excuse for procrastination, so the only thing stopping you is you. Do not be afraid, do not expect perfection, just get started and do it. Eliminate procrastination in your studies even if you cannot eliminate it from your life. Make a plan, find the objective, and follow through to the end. Look ahead and know what your next step will be. Utilize your knowledge to enhance your thinking skills, and stick to the objective. Above all else, just remember: You can do this!
References
Carter, C., Bishop, J., & Kravits, S. (2007). Keys to college studying: Becoming an active
thinker (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Goett, J., & Foote, K. (2000). Cultivating student research and study skills in Web-based
learning environments. Retrieved from
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/pqdlink?did=59614022&sid=2&Fmt=4&clientld=13118&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Marano, H.E. (2003). Procrastination: Ten things to know. Psychology Today. Retrieved
July 8, 2009, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/node/24800
Wikipedia. (2009). Procrastination. Retrieved July 8, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination
Blahism: Professional Knowledge and Abilities
Developing professional knowledge and abilities is imperative in having a successful career. Teachers give students the tools they need in college to develop the skills needed to have successful careers; but, those tools are merely a guide. The responsibility constantly to improve knowledge and ability in order to be successful falls on the individual. Different organizations and associations that specialize in different aspects of many professions are plentiful and are wonderful tools in developing and maintaining career skills.
The International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology (IAFCP) is “the voice of psychology in corrections” (IAFCP, 2007). The IAFCP works with other organizations such as the American Correctional Association, the International Corrections and Prisons Association, the Forensic Mental Health Association of California, and the American Psychological Association. The association is concerned with providing mental health services to criminals, and in the continued research and treatment of criminal behavior (IAFCP, 2007).
The number of criminals in the prison system has been on the rise since the 1980s; in fact, “state and federal incarceration rates grew by over 200 percent between 1980 and 1996” (Blumstein & Beck, 1999). The community has generally been uninterested in supporting any type of rehabilitation for prisoners, and mental illness often goes undiagnosed and untreated. Prisoners left untreated often get released back into society after serving time, only to commit more crimes and end up back in prison. In addition to the mentally ill inmates not receiving the treatment they need, many inmates have developed “severe depression, psychosis and even suicidal behavior” as a result of “incarceration and overcrowding” of prisons (IAFCP, 2007).
The IAFCP works with its affiliates to be a source of education regarding the mental health of prisoners and parolees. Their Web site has a multitude of information on, including information about membership, publications, and resources including job listings. This association is a convenient place for professionals to stay updated on new information and laws that pertain to psychology in forensics and corrections. The association aids professionals in developing treatment plans for individuals inside the corrections system, which could benefit someone just out of college who is looking to begin his or her career in the field of criminal psychology.
The tools and the guides are out there for the student looking to make the leap into a successful career. Their success, however, depends on their abilities and knowledge of the career they are getting into. For the individual aspiring to become a criminal psychologist, the IAFCP is an appropriate association to gain professional knowledge and skills.
References
Blumstein, A., & Beck, A. (1999). Population growth in u.s. prisons, 1980-1996 . Crime
and Justice, 26, 17-61.
(2007). International association for correctional and forensic psychology. Retrieved
July 9, 2009, from http://www.ia4cfp.org/index.php?submenu=Home&src=
The International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology (IAFCP) is “the voice of psychology in corrections” (IAFCP, 2007). The IAFCP works with other organizations such as the American Correctional Association, the International Corrections and Prisons Association, the Forensic Mental Health Association of California, and the American Psychological Association. The association is concerned with providing mental health services to criminals, and in the continued research and treatment of criminal behavior (IAFCP, 2007).
The number of criminals in the prison system has been on the rise since the 1980s; in fact, “state and federal incarceration rates grew by over 200 percent between 1980 and 1996” (Blumstein & Beck, 1999). The community has generally been uninterested in supporting any type of rehabilitation for prisoners, and mental illness often goes undiagnosed and untreated. Prisoners left untreated often get released back into society after serving time, only to commit more crimes and end up back in prison. In addition to the mentally ill inmates not receiving the treatment they need, many inmates have developed “severe depression, psychosis and even suicidal behavior” as a result of “incarceration and overcrowding” of prisons (IAFCP, 2007).
The IAFCP works with its affiliates to be a source of education regarding the mental health of prisoners and parolees. Their Web site has a multitude of information on, including information about membership, publications, and resources including job listings. This association is a convenient place for professionals to stay updated on new information and laws that pertain to psychology in forensics and corrections. The association aids professionals in developing treatment plans for individuals inside the corrections system, which could benefit someone just out of college who is looking to begin his or her career in the field of criminal psychology.
The tools and the guides are out there for the student looking to make the leap into a successful career. Their success, however, depends on their abilities and knowledge of the career they are getting into. For the individual aspiring to become a criminal psychologist, the IAFCP is an appropriate association to gain professional knowledge and skills.
References
Blumstein, A., & Beck, A. (1999). Population growth in u.s. prisons, 1980-1996 . Crime
and Justice, 26, 17-61.
(2007). International association for correctional and forensic psychology. Retrieved
July 9, 2009, from http://www.ia4cfp.org/index.php?submenu=Home&src=
Blahism: Modernization on Indigenous Cultures
Modernization is the “transformation of a society from a rural and agrarian condition to a secular, urban, and industrial one” (Britannica, 2009). The advancements of technology and Western civilization have affected almost the entire world. Wikipedia defines indigenous peoples as “any ethnic group of people who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest known historical connection, alongside immigrants which have populated the region and which are greater in number” (2009). There are many different tribes and cultures in many different nations including the Kayapo, Gullah, and Samoan aboriginal cultures.
These indigenous cultures have managed to adapt along with modern cultures and maintain their traditional values. Tradition-directedness is “the rigid conformity to time-honored ways of living” (Macionis, 2006). According to David Riesman, as quoted by Macionis, “living the good life” equals “doing what people have always done” (2006). This is common thinking within indigenous cultures and is highly misunderstood by most Westerners. Indigenous peoples are sometimes negatively characterized as “inferior, dangerous or primitive” because they do not share Western ideals and values on material possessions and technology (Gallhofer, et al, 2000). With all the technological advances in the Western world we have failed to successfully sustain our ecosystem and have begun to seek “the wisdom and insight of indigenous peoples” regarding our environmental concerns (Gallhofer, et al, 2000).
An article in the South China Morning Post depicts a man from the Brazilian Kayapo Indian tribe who moved to Canada after meeting an Ojibway woman from Canada. The two married and had children, and now the man “feels he is dying” in Canada (Gale, 2001). He moved back to the Amazon with his children to escape the Western lifestyle he felt forced to abide by, and he “wishes to hunt and fish again without government restrictions” (Gale, 2001). It was too hard for the man to accept the Western way of life since the Kayapo have only been in contact with Westerners for about 50 years (Gale, 2001). Kayapo Chief Raoni Metuktire is internationally known because of his fight to preserve the Amazon Rain Forest, and has even toured with the singer Sting (Gale, 2001). This is a clear example of Wilbur Zelinsky’s theory that indigenous cultures have been affected by the global manifestation of a “worldwide sharing of movies, comics, television programs, gadgets, popular music and dance, dress, cuisines, other forms of entertainment, and much else” (2009).
Other aboriginal leaders wishing to draw attention to “the impact of massive hydroelectric projects, mining and logging on native communities” invited Metuktire to Canada (Gale, 2001). He was quoted by the South China Morning Post as saying “I have seen the destruction of your land and I am very sad about that”, and he also feels that the man returning to Kayapo with his children are better off in the jungle living a more traditional lifestyle (2001). John Macionis raises an interesting point, though, about the Kayapo Indians. After recently becoming wealthy after mining gold and rich mahogany the tribe purchased a television set which has unfortunately “stolen the night” from the elders who used to sit with the tribe at night and speak of their ancestry and history (2006). It is not an unusual occurrence, however, to see a mixture of traditional and modern culture together. John Macionis points out other examples such as the mixture of ancient Confucian principles and “contemporary socialist thinking”; and “the latest modern technology” and traditional Islam principles in Saudi Arabia (2009). The purchase of a television is yet another example of Zelinsky’s theory of the manifestation of sharing of television programs and “other forms of entertainment” (2009).
There is nothing “wrong” with the Kayapo community, yet the theory of mass-society demands that they conform to modern regulation. Even though they are successful economically, they are still at risk of losing their culture because of something as simple as a television set. Modernization has infiltrated the aboriginal tribe and threatens to destroy their traditions, as they have no written language and depend on the oral depiction of their history passed down through generations (Macionis, 2006).
According to Wilbur Zelinsky “the forces of globalization, while obliterating some differences among places, are also breeding wholly new varieties of places and people” (2009). An example of Zelinsky’s theory of modernization on an indigenous culture is the Gullahs who reside on an island near the coast of South Carolina (Waldrip, 2003). The Gullah people are a creolized culture of the slave generation who moved away from the mainland and adopted universal African traditions. They merged their different tribal dialects with the English language to “form a new mode of oral expression” (Waldrip, 2003). There are very few people living on the island and they survive by fishing and creating traditional crafts for work; because there are so few people there are not many other options for jobs, and the elders worry that the children will not have the means to support themselves as adults (Macionis, 2006). As more wealthy mainlanders are looking to the island for vacation and summer homes, real estate value is rising and the locals are concerned about the rise of property taxes. The effect of modernization on the Gullah culture may drive young ones to the mainland for work while the real estate is taken over by wealthy white people. As a direct result of modernization and capitalism the Gullahs face the eventual elimination of their culture altogether (Macionis, 2006).
Samoan culture is interesting because they have embraced entrepreneurship in a way that many other indigenous cultures have not. They are capable of supporting their extended families and entire communities while maintaining their economy and trade with Westerners. Samoan indigenous entrepreneurship is a family based operation that depends on natural resources for survival (Morrison, 2008). Samoan families work together toward success, have little tolerance for laziness, and abide by the “expectation to give back more than asked for” to the community (Morrison, 2008). If someone in the community needs help they will aid that person in the hope of giving them the opportunity to be self-sufficient and to avoid creating dependency the community and others for success. Their work ethic is strong and honorable and focused on community well being instead of the biggest profit. As opposed to other economies “indigenous entrepreneurship relies on inalienable natural capital” and not financial and physical capital as is the case in modernized Western cultures (Morrison, 2008).
The “symbolic” exchange of the Samoan economy is that it is sustained directly by the family and does not require trading on the market. “Families can weave mats and grow pigs to create the symbols of exchange” (Morrison, 2008). This symbol of exchange offers monetary freedom to Samoans and gives them the control of what amount (how ever many mats or pigs as opposed to a strict dollar amount) is valuable in the market. This system is better equipped to handle inflation and deflation in the market without causing economic turmoil and corporate corruption and greed, as is evident in Western cultures. Since “all families are capable of weaving and growing pigs” it creates equality in the economic system of the community and “avoids creation of economic classes” (Morrison, 2008).
Different sociologists throughout history have had different theories about modernization and its effect on societies. Most theories coincide with the others, and some are slightly different from each other. The bottom line is that modernization has had a great effect on societies big and small, though theorists often differ on opinion of whether or not the effect is positive or negative. Ferdinand Tönnies was a German sociologist who developed the theories of modernization Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). Gemeinschaft means “human community” which is the aspect of society that is lost with modernization (Macionis, 2006). After the Industrial Revolution people became less tradition-directed and more self-focused which is the aspect of modernization Tönnies referred to as Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). According to Tönnies the cost of individual success, as perpetuated by capitalism or industrialization, is the loss of community.
French sociologist Emile Durkheim’s theory of mechanical solidarity explores pre-modernized societies that share a moral fiber. The opposing view to mechanical solidarity is his theory of the division of labor in which each person in society has a specialized job, and each person is dependent upon society as a whole, the very characteristic that the Samoan culture is trying to avoid (Macionis, 2006). Max Weber spoke of rationalization as a replacement of a traditional worldview. Viewing social change rationally means releasing the hold of tradition on society that keeps growth and advancement to a minimum. Weber called modernization “disenchanted” while realizing that “modern society turns away from the gods” (Macionis, 2006).
Karl Marx correlated modernization with the capitalist revolution and his theory embodied the theories of Tönnies, Durkheim, and Weber. According to Marx capitalism “weakened small communities, increased the division of labor, and encouraged a rational world view” (Macionis, 2006). Capitalism opened avenues for individual profit without limitation; and farmers and small town community members are drawn to the city in pursuit of success, leaving small towns barren and obsolete. Factories and industry are at the heart of capitalism and depend on the division of labor for success. The “pursuit of profit” is an evident result of rationalism that is also a large part of the continued success of capitalism. The focus of modernization is the individual; focus is no longer set on tradition as it is now set on advancing science, technology, and industry. This is the very aspect of modernization that is affecting the Kayapo Indians in Brazil. Social change, division of labor, and rationalization are necessary factors needed to propel modernization and these are not qualities that most indigenous cultures cultivate.
Other-directedness.
Global modernization.
Obviously Western culture and modernization have affected even the traditional aboriginal cultures predominantly cut off from modern society. But these smaller societies have made a conscious decision to denounce modern culture and preserve their traditional way of life. It is unfortunate for groups like the Gullahs who wish to maintain their culture but are being pushed into modernization against their will, but out of necessity for survival. Raoni Metuktire has utilized his associations with Western civilization to spread the word about the negative effects of modernization and we would be wiser to take advantage of his forgotten techniques of caring for the environment. Positive or negative, modernization is an inevitable factor in the future of the global community. The best way to deal with modernization is to remember the tradition-directedness of indigenous cultures as we progress with our technologies.
References
Gallhofer, S., Gibson, K., Haslam, J., McNicholas, P., Takiari, B. (2000). Developing
Environmental accounting: insights from indigenous cultures. Accounting,
Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 13.3. Retrieved from the University
Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/09513570010334937
Macionis, J.J. (2006). Society: the basics (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall
Morrison, K. (2008). Indigenous entrepreneurship in samoa in the face of neo-
Colonialism and globalization. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and
Places in the Global Economy, Vol. 2.3. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/17506200810897222
No Author (2001). Jungle beckons Amazonian weary of western ways. South China
Morning Post. General OneFile. Gale. Retrieved from the University Library
http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodld=ITOF
Waldrip, C.B. (2003). Gullah. Encyclopedia of American History: Colonization and
Settlement, 1608 to 1760, Vol. 2. New York. American History Online. Facts On
File. Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.fofweb.com/activelin2.asp
Wikipedia (2009). Indigenous peoples. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples
Zelinsky, W. (2009). Human dimensions of global change. Oxford Reference Online.
Retrieved from the University Library http://www.oxfordreference.com/views
These indigenous cultures have managed to adapt along with modern cultures and maintain their traditional values. Tradition-directedness is “the rigid conformity to time-honored ways of living” (Macionis, 2006). According to David Riesman, as quoted by Macionis, “living the good life” equals “doing what people have always done” (2006). This is common thinking within indigenous cultures and is highly misunderstood by most Westerners. Indigenous peoples are sometimes negatively characterized as “inferior, dangerous or primitive” because they do not share Western ideals and values on material possessions and technology (Gallhofer, et al, 2000). With all the technological advances in the Western world we have failed to successfully sustain our ecosystem and have begun to seek “the wisdom and insight of indigenous peoples” regarding our environmental concerns (Gallhofer, et al, 2000).
An article in the South China Morning Post depicts a man from the Brazilian Kayapo Indian tribe who moved to Canada after meeting an Ojibway woman from Canada. The two married and had children, and now the man “feels he is dying” in Canada (Gale, 2001). He moved back to the Amazon with his children to escape the Western lifestyle he felt forced to abide by, and he “wishes to hunt and fish again without government restrictions” (Gale, 2001). It was too hard for the man to accept the Western way of life since the Kayapo have only been in contact with Westerners for about 50 years (Gale, 2001). Kayapo Chief Raoni Metuktire is internationally known because of his fight to preserve the Amazon Rain Forest, and has even toured with the singer Sting (Gale, 2001). This is a clear example of Wilbur Zelinsky’s theory that indigenous cultures have been affected by the global manifestation of a “worldwide sharing of movies, comics, television programs, gadgets, popular music and dance, dress, cuisines, other forms of entertainment, and much else” (2009).
Other aboriginal leaders wishing to draw attention to “the impact of massive hydroelectric projects, mining and logging on native communities” invited Metuktire to Canada (Gale, 2001). He was quoted by the South China Morning Post as saying “I have seen the destruction of your land and I am very sad about that”, and he also feels that the man returning to Kayapo with his children are better off in the jungle living a more traditional lifestyle (2001). John Macionis raises an interesting point, though, about the Kayapo Indians. After recently becoming wealthy after mining gold and rich mahogany the tribe purchased a television set which has unfortunately “stolen the night” from the elders who used to sit with the tribe at night and speak of their ancestry and history (2006). It is not an unusual occurrence, however, to see a mixture of traditional and modern culture together. John Macionis points out other examples such as the mixture of ancient Confucian principles and “contemporary socialist thinking”; and “the latest modern technology” and traditional Islam principles in Saudi Arabia (2009). The purchase of a television is yet another example of Zelinsky’s theory of the manifestation of sharing of television programs and “other forms of entertainment” (2009).
There is nothing “wrong” with the Kayapo community, yet the theory of mass-society demands that they conform to modern regulation. Even though they are successful economically, they are still at risk of losing their culture because of something as simple as a television set. Modernization has infiltrated the aboriginal tribe and threatens to destroy their traditions, as they have no written language and depend on the oral depiction of their history passed down through generations (Macionis, 2006).
According to Wilbur Zelinsky “the forces of globalization, while obliterating some differences among places, are also breeding wholly new varieties of places and people” (2009). An example of Zelinsky’s theory of modernization on an indigenous culture is the Gullahs who reside on an island near the coast of South Carolina (Waldrip, 2003). The Gullah people are a creolized culture of the slave generation who moved away from the mainland and adopted universal African traditions. They merged their different tribal dialects with the English language to “form a new mode of oral expression” (Waldrip, 2003). There are very few people living on the island and they survive by fishing and creating traditional crafts for work; because there are so few people there are not many other options for jobs, and the elders worry that the children will not have the means to support themselves as adults (Macionis, 2006). As more wealthy mainlanders are looking to the island for vacation and summer homes, real estate value is rising and the locals are concerned about the rise of property taxes. The effect of modernization on the Gullah culture may drive young ones to the mainland for work while the real estate is taken over by wealthy white people. As a direct result of modernization and capitalism the Gullahs face the eventual elimination of their culture altogether (Macionis, 2006).
Samoan culture is interesting because they have embraced entrepreneurship in a way that many other indigenous cultures have not. They are capable of supporting their extended families and entire communities while maintaining their economy and trade with Westerners. Samoan indigenous entrepreneurship is a family based operation that depends on natural resources for survival (Morrison, 2008). Samoan families work together toward success, have little tolerance for laziness, and abide by the “expectation to give back more than asked for” to the community (Morrison, 2008). If someone in the community needs help they will aid that person in the hope of giving them the opportunity to be self-sufficient and to avoid creating dependency the community and others for success. Their work ethic is strong and honorable and focused on community well being instead of the biggest profit. As opposed to other economies “indigenous entrepreneurship relies on inalienable natural capital” and not financial and physical capital as is the case in modernized Western cultures (Morrison, 2008).
The “symbolic” exchange of the Samoan economy is that it is sustained directly by the family and does not require trading on the market. “Families can weave mats and grow pigs to create the symbols of exchange” (Morrison, 2008). This symbol of exchange offers monetary freedom to Samoans and gives them the control of what amount (how ever many mats or pigs as opposed to a strict dollar amount) is valuable in the market. This system is better equipped to handle inflation and deflation in the market without causing economic turmoil and corporate corruption and greed, as is evident in Western cultures. Since “all families are capable of weaving and growing pigs” it creates equality in the economic system of the community and “avoids creation of economic classes” (Morrison, 2008).
Different sociologists throughout history have had different theories about modernization and its effect on societies. Most theories coincide with the others, and some are slightly different from each other. The bottom line is that modernization has had a great effect on societies big and small, though theorists often differ on opinion of whether or not the effect is positive or negative. Ferdinand Tönnies was a German sociologist who developed the theories of modernization Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). Gemeinschaft means “human community” which is the aspect of society that is lost with modernization (Macionis, 2006). After the Industrial Revolution people became less tradition-directed and more self-focused which is the aspect of modernization Tönnies referred to as Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). According to Tönnies the cost of individual success, as perpetuated by capitalism or industrialization, is the loss of community.
French sociologist Emile Durkheim’s theory of mechanical solidarity explores pre-modernized societies that share a moral fiber. The opposing view to mechanical solidarity is his theory of the division of labor in which each person in society has a specialized job, and each person is dependent upon society as a whole, the very characteristic that the Samoan culture is trying to avoid (Macionis, 2006). Max Weber spoke of rationalization as a replacement of a traditional worldview. Viewing social change rationally means releasing the hold of tradition on society that keeps growth and advancement to a minimum. Weber called modernization “disenchanted” while realizing that “modern society turns away from the gods” (Macionis, 2006).
Karl Marx correlated modernization with the capitalist revolution and his theory embodied the theories of Tönnies, Durkheim, and Weber. According to Marx capitalism “weakened small communities, increased the division of labor, and encouraged a rational world view” (Macionis, 2006). Capitalism opened avenues for individual profit without limitation; and farmers and small town community members are drawn to the city in pursuit of success, leaving small towns barren and obsolete. Factories and industry are at the heart of capitalism and depend on the division of labor for success. The “pursuit of profit” is an evident result of rationalism that is also a large part of the continued success of capitalism. The focus of modernization is the individual; focus is no longer set on tradition as it is now set on advancing science, technology, and industry. This is the very aspect of modernization that is affecting the Kayapo Indians in Brazil. Social change, division of labor, and rationalization are necessary factors needed to propel modernization and these are not qualities that most indigenous cultures cultivate.
Other-directedness.
Global modernization.
Obviously Western culture and modernization have affected even the traditional aboriginal cultures predominantly cut off from modern society. But these smaller societies have made a conscious decision to denounce modern culture and preserve their traditional way of life. It is unfortunate for groups like the Gullahs who wish to maintain their culture but are being pushed into modernization against their will, but out of necessity for survival. Raoni Metuktire has utilized his associations with Western civilization to spread the word about the negative effects of modernization and we would be wiser to take advantage of his forgotten techniques of caring for the environment. Positive or negative, modernization is an inevitable factor in the future of the global community. The best way to deal with modernization is to remember the tradition-directedness of indigenous cultures as we progress with our technologies.
References
Gallhofer, S., Gibson, K., Haslam, J., McNicholas, P., Takiari, B. (2000). Developing
Environmental accounting: insights from indigenous cultures. Accounting,
Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 13.3. Retrieved from the University
Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/09513570010334937
Macionis, J.J. (2006). Society: the basics (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall
Morrison, K. (2008). Indigenous entrepreneurship in samoa in the face of neo-
Colonialism and globalization. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and
Places in the Global Economy, Vol. 2.3. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/17506200810897222
No Author (2001). Jungle beckons Amazonian weary of western ways. South China
Morning Post. General OneFile. Gale. Retrieved from the University Library
http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodld=ITOF
Waldrip, C.B. (2003). Gullah. Encyclopedia of American History: Colonization and
Settlement, 1608 to 1760, Vol. 2. New York. American History Online. Facts On
File. Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.fofweb.com/activelin2.asp
Wikipedia (2009). Indigenous peoples. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples
Zelinsky, W. (2009). Human dimensions of global change. Oxford Reference Online.
Retrieved from the University Library http://www.oxfordreference.com/views
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