Foundations of Psychology
Four major schools of thought embody the foundations of psychology: Psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, and evolutionary. Scientists use these different perspectives to understand the how and why of human behavior, since one correct way to define or interpret psychology has not yet been invented. Behavioral neuroscience, or biopsychology, is another tool scientists use to understand the inner workings of the mind (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 4). A person’s behavior can be explained by different systems in the body, including: Neurons, the endocrine system, nervous systems, and a person’s individual genetic makeup.
Major Schools of Thought
The psychodynamic perspective assumes that a person’s behavior is based on how they think, feel, or what they want. Often, the action associated with these thoughts and feelings are “outside of conscious awareness” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 11). The psychodynamic theory suggests opposition is usually apparent between a person’s true thoughts and feelings, and the behavior outwardly expressed. Psychodynamic psychologists use psychoanalysis to gain information about a person’s inner self by studying the things they do and say. Psychodynamic analysis shows that “people reveal themselves in everything they do” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p.12).
The idea that behavior is controlled by learning from experiences, from objects in one’s environment, and from external stimuli is the perspective of behaviorism. Behavioral science is an experimental science, and behavioral therapists are still learning how this science can help people control their behavior. The study of behaviorism has been beneficial to people seeking to “quit smoking or drinking” because these are learned behaviors that can be unlearned (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 15). A classic example of the behaviorist perspective is the experiments performed by Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) in which he was studying the relation of salivation and the digestive system of dogs (PBS, 1998). His dogs learned that meals were accompanied by a certain sound and, after time, would begin to salivate upon hearing this sound.
People’s brains work in a way that is similar to how a computer attains, stores, and reproduces information. The cognitive perspective refers to the way that people react to situations, how their brains process memories for storage and use, and how they exhibit problem-solving skills. Cognitive therapy is one of the most popular forms of modern therapy used by psychologists today. The evolutionary perspective can be defined by certain human behaviors that are a part of our nature, and stem from the desire to survive and preserve our species. Nature and nurture responses are delegated to the evolutionary perspective, as is the fight or flight responses.
Biological Foundations of Psychology
The Encyclopedia of Psychology defines the Nervous System as “an electrochemical conducting network that transmits messages from the brain through the nerves to locations throughout the body” (Strickland, 2001). The nervous system is responsible for many processes, including the manifestation of our psychological behavior. Three types of neurons can be found that aid in the function of the nervous system: sensory, motor, and interneurons. The information delivered to the brain from the receptors in the body is responsible for relaying sensations, such as pain or delight. Motor neurons carry information that helps the brain regulate motor movement. The motor movements can be voluntary or can happen without us thinking about it, like “digestion and heartbeat” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 62).
Neurons receive their information from dendrites, the “branchlike extensions of the neuron” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Information is delivered between neurons via synapses, where the information is carried through the axon, “a long extension from the cell body,” to the dendrites (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Neurotransmitters are the information, or the “chemical messages” that are transmitted between the cells. Glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine (Ach), and endorphins are all types of neurotransmitters that are responsible for different feelings and emotions that humans have (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 68).
“The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 71). The chemicals delivered from the glands are hormones. The different glands which house the hormones are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, testes, and ovaries. Hormones, like neurotransmitters, are responsible for different chemical reactions in our bodies that can provoke actions, like creating eggs in women for fertilization, and growth in children and teenagers. An imbalance of hormones in our bodies can have a negative effect on our feelings and moods.
Kowalski and Westen mention that the endocrine system plays a key role in our psychological makeup, but “the center of our psychological experience is the nervous system” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 73). The central and the peripheral nervous system make up the two parts to the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, and the peripheral system is comprised of the neurons that transmit information to the central nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord, hindbrain (medulla oblongata, reticular activating system, cerebellum), midbrain (tectum, tegmentum), subcortical forebrain (hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, amygdala, hippocampus, basal ganglia), and the cerebral cortex (Occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal lobes). These systems intricately work with one another to keep us alive and upright, awake or asleep, aware or dreaming, and happy or sad.
Lastly, genetics and evolution play a major role in how humans behave. Human beings share half of our father’s DNA and half of our mother’s DNA. The genes we get from our parents can “influence both intellectual functioning and personality” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 91). The evolutionary perspective is supported by the evolution of genetics, in that it directly relates to nature/nurture responses and is responsible for natural selection. The stronger genes that contribute to survival are the genes that survive and ultimately get passed down through generations.
Along with the evolutionary perspective, psychodynamic, behaviorist, and cognitive perspectives are the foundations of psychology. Psychologists all over the world study these perspectives, and each theory has specialists devoted it. To better understand human behavior, scientists have turned to what is inside the body that affects our psychology. With the aid of neurotransmitters, hormones, and DNA, scientists are acquiring a better understanding of why we are the way we are, as human beings, and as individuals.
References
Kowalski, R.M., & Westen, D. (2005). Psychology, 4e.
PBS. (1998). People and discoveries. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpavl.html
Strickland, B.R. (2001). Nervous system. Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2nd ed. Gale
Cengage. eNotes.com. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.enotes.com/gale-psychology-encyclopedia/nervous-system
Saturday, July 25, 2009
Wednesday, July 22, 2009
Blahism: Research Strategy for Procrastinators
Procrastination
Staring at a blank screen will not produce an essay. Thinking about something can lead to action, but only if the motivation and efforts are there. An assignment may seem daunting at times; so, how does one hurdle the jump of doubt and procrastination to cross the line into production? The best way to tackle procrastination is by making a plan, knowing what step to take next, and following through. What is procrastination, and how does it affect a student’s ability to research and complete assignments?
Procrastination is defined by Wikipedia as “a behavior which is characterized by the deferment of actions or tasks” (2009). Procrastination is a behavior, which is a characteristic that some people have that prevents them from accomplishing tasks in a timely manner. Students have long suffered academically from procrastination, whether it is a result of fear, doubt, perfectionism, or simply not knowing how to do something (Carter, et. al., 2007, Ch. 1). Procrastination is a learned behavior and it is not something that can easily be unlearned. “Telling someone who procrastinates to buy a weekly planner is like telling someone with chronic depression to just cheer up” (Ferrari, J., 2003). So, you know you have a paper due, what is the next step?
Make a Plan
The next step is to figure out what you need to do to accomplish this task. What are the teacher’s specific instructions? Identify an objective and write it down on paper, or type it into a Word document. Sometimes just getting started is enough to get the creative juices flowing; if you can get just a few words on paper that is a step in the right direction. Stay focused, do not stray from the topic; this is why it is good to have the objective written down. If you are writing a paper on Leonardo Da Vinci’s artistic abilities, do not waste time researching his supposed involvement in secret societies. The first draft does not have to be perfect, just get the words on the paper and you can always go back and fix mistakes or rewrite sentences. Do not set unreasonable goals for yourself, do not expect perfection, and take breaks frequently so you do not get overwhelmed. Now you have your objective written down, so, what now?
What’s Next?
It is time to research information for your paper; do not get scared, this is actually going to help you come up with ideas for writing. The University of Phoenix Online degree program has available for student use an online University Library. This library is the foundation of a multitude of useful information. Log on to the student homepage and click the link for the University Library. There is a search bar you can type your topic directly into that will search all databases of the library. You can also search one database at a time, or view only peer-reviewed articles. If you are having any problems finding information, there is a link to ask the librarian a question. Do not be afraid to ask for help when you need it.
Type in key words for your topic, such as: “the Vietnam War”, “AIDS in Africa”, or “effects of technology on modern society”. If you do not find what you are looking for on the first try, revise your wording to get different search results. For example: the Vietnam War is a broad subject, try typing in “Tet Offensive”, “Kent State”, or “Lyndon B. Johnson”. Many results will show up, now you just need to do some reading and decide which articles you will reference in your paper. Do not only look for articles that match your opinion. It is a good idea to get both sides of the argument so you have the most information on the subject you are researching. Sometimes, having the opposing opinion will help you to formulate questions and answers supporting your own theory. Do not be afraid to use major search engines like Google to do research, but make sure what you are reading is accurate information on the subject.
Determining Validity
Obviously you cannot believe everything you read; this especially applies to information on the internet. Be careful when researching outside the University Library. When using the World Wide Web, enlist the agency most qualified to dictate information on a particular subject. “Individuals, businesses, government agencies, universities, and professional agencies all produce lists covering Web resources in their areas of interest and expertise” (Goett & Foote, 2000). Often, these agencies will have links on their Web sites to other accredited sites with useful information. Look for information in numbers, there will generally be many Web sites with similar information on one subject. Do not trust Web sites that do not have authority or references. Use your critical thinking skills to determine if a Web site is credible or not. For example: An article from a government Web site on the U.S. economy would be better than a Web site detailing predictions of the economy based on what the aliens who abducted me said. Your common sense is going to be a useful tool when doing research.
Application of Knowledge in Real Life
The required reading for GEN200 is a great resource that can be used in future classes. Knowing whether or not you are a procrastinator can help you to find ways to overcome your problem and lead a productive life. Keys to College Studying: Becoming an Active Thinker (2nd ed.), Chapters 1, 2, and 3 are efficient in providing tools for time management, knowing your learning styles and how best to develop them, and tools for creative and critical thinking. The University Library is a flourishing well of knowledge to aid in any kind of research project.
These resources leave little excuse for procrastination, so the only thing stopping you is you. Do not be afraid, do not expect perfection, just get started and do it. Eliminate procrastination in your studies even if you cannot eliminate it from your life. Make a plan, find the objective, and follow through to the end. Look ahead and know what your next step will be. Utilize your knowledge to enhance your thinking skills, and stick to the objective. Above all else, just remember: You can do this!
References
Carter, C., Bishop, J., & Kravits, S. (2007). Keys to college studying: Becoming an active
thinker (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Goett, J., & Foote, K. (2000). Cultivating student research and study skills in Web-based
learning environments. Retrieved from
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/pqdlink?did=59614022&sid=2&Fmt=4&clientld=13118&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Marano, H.E. (2003). Procrastination: Ten things to know. Psychology Today. Retrieved
July 8, 2009, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/node/24800
Wikipedia. (2009). Procrastination. Retrieved July 8, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination
Staring at a blank screen will not produce an essay. Thinking about something can lead to action, but only if the motivation and efforts are there. An assignment may seem daunting at times; so, how does one hurdle the jump of doubt and procrastination to cross the line into production? The best way to tackle procrastination is by making a plan, knowing what step to take next, and following through. What is procrastination, and how does it affect a student’s ability to research and complete assignments?
Procrastination is defined by Wikipedia as “a behavior which is characterized by the deferment of actions or tasks” (2009). Procrastination is a behavior, which is a characteristic that some people have that prevents them from accomplishing tasks in a timely manner. Students have long suffered academically from procrastination, whether it is a result of fear, doubt, perfectionism, or simply not knowing how to do something (Carter, et. al., 2007, Ch. 1). Procrastination is a learned behavior and it is not something that can easily be unlearned. “Telling someone who procrastinates to buy a weekly planner is like telling someone with chronic depression to just cheer up” (Ferrari, J., 2003). So, you know you have a paper due, what is the next step?
Make a Plan
The next step is to figure out what you need to do to accomplish this task. What are the teacher’s specific instructions? Identify an objective and write it down on paper, or type it into a Word document. Sometimes just getting started is enough to get the creative juices flowing; if you can get just a few words on paper that is a step in the right direction. Stay focused, do not stray from the topic; this is why it is good to have the objective written down. If you are writing a paper on Leonardo Da Vinci’s artistic abilities, do not waste time researching his supposed involvement in secret societies. The first draft does not have to be perfect, just get the words on the paper and you can always go back and fix mistakes or rewrite sentences. Do not set unreasonable goals for yourself, do not expect perfection, and take breaks frequently so you do not get overwhelmed. Now you have your objective written down, so, what now?
What’s Next?
It is time to research information for your paper; do not get scared, this is actually going to help you come up with ideas for writing. The University of Phoenix Online degree program has available for student use an online University Library. This library is the foundation of a multitude of useful information. Log on to the student homepage and click the link for the University Library. There is a search bar you can type your topic directly into that will search all databases of the library. You can also search one database at a time, or view only peer-reviewed articles. If you are having any problems finding information, there is a link to ask the librarian a question. Do not be afraid to ask for help when you need it.
Type in key words for your topic, such as: “the Vietnam War”, “AIDS in Africa”, or “effects of technology on modern society”. If you do not find what you are looking for on the first try, revise your wording to get different search results. For example: the Vietnam War is a broad subject, try typing in “Tet Offensive”, “Kent State”, or “Lyndon B. Johnson”. Many results will show up, now you just need to do some reading and decide which articles you will reference in your paper. Do not only look for articles that match your opinion. It is a good idea to get both sides of the argument so you have the most information on the subject you are researching. Sometimes, having the opposing opinion will help you to formulate questions and answers supporting your own theory. Do not be afraid to use major search engines like Google to do research, but make sure what you are reading is accurate information on the subject.
Determining Validity
Obviously you cannot believe everything you read; this especially applies to information on the internet. Be careful when researching outside the University Library. When using the World Wide Web, enlist the agency most qualified to dictate information on a particular subject. “Individuals, businesses, government agencies, universities, and professional agencies all produce lists covering Web resources in their areas of interest and expertise” (Goett & Foote, 2000). Often, these agencies will have links on their Web sites to other accredited sites with useful information. Look for information in numbers, there will generally be many Web sites with similar information on one subject. Do not trust Web sites that do not have authority or references. Use your critical thinking skills to determine if a Web site is credible or not. For example: An article from a government Web site on the U.S. economy would be better than a Web site detailing predictions of the economy based on what the aliens who abducted me said. Your common sense is going to be a useful tool when doing research.
Application of Knowledge in Real Life
The required reading for GEN200 is a great resource that can be used in future classes. Knowing whether or not you are a procrastinator can help you to find ways to overcome your problem and lead a productive life. Keys to College Studying: Becoming an Active Thinker (2nd ed.), Chapters 1, 2, and 3 are efficient in providing tools for time management, knowing your learning styles and how best to develop them, and tools for creative and critical thinking. The University Library is a flourishing well of knowledge to aid in any kind of research project.
These resources leave little excuse for procrastination, so the only thing stopping you is you. Do not be afraid, do not expect perfection, just get started and do it. Eliminate procrastination in your studies even if you cannot eliminate it from your life. Make a plan, find the objective, and follow through to the end. Look ahead and know what your next step will be. Utilize your knowledge to enhance your thinking skills, and stick to the objective. Above all else, just remember: You can do this!
References
Carter, C., Bishop, J., & Kravits, S. (2007). Keys to college studying: Becoming an active
thinker (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Goett, J., & Foote, K. (2000). Cultivating student research and study skills in Web-based
learning environments. Retrieved from
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/pqdlink?did=59614022&sid=2&Fmt=4&clientld=13118&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Marano, H.E. (2003). Procrastination: Ten things to know. Psychology Today. Retrieved
July 8, 2009, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/node/24800
Wikipedia. (2009). Procrastination. Retrieved July 8, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination
Blahism: Professional Knowledge and Abilities
Developing professional knowledge and abilities is imperative in having a successful career. Teachers give students the tools they need in college to develop the skills needed to have successful careers; but, those tools are merely a guide. The responsibility constantly to improve knowledge and ability in order to be successful falls on the individual. Different organizations and associations that specialize in different aspects of many professions are plentiful and are wonderful tools in developing and maintaining career skills.
The International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology (IAFCP) is “the voice of psychology in corrections” (IAFCP, 2007). The IAFCP works with other organizations such as the American Correctional Association, the International Corrections and Prisons Association, the Forensic Mental Health Association of California, and the American Psychological Association. The association is concerned with providing mental health services to criminals, and in the continued research and treatment of criminal behavior (IAFCP, 2007).
The number of criminals in the prison system has been on the rise since the 1980s; in fact, “state and federal incarceration rates grew by over 200 percent between 1980 and 1996” (Blumstein & Beck, 1999). The community has generally been uninterested in supporting any type of rehabilitation for prisoners, and mental illness often goes undiagnosed and untreated. Prisoners left untreated often get released back into society after serving time, only to commit more crimes and end up back in prison. In addition to the mentally ill inmates not receiving the treatment they need, many inmates have developed “severe depression, psychosis and even suicidal behavior” as a result of “incarceration and overcrowding” of prisons (IAFCP, 2007).
The IAFCP works with its affiliates to be a source of education regarding the mental health of prisoners and parolees. Their Web site has a multitude of information on, including information about membership, publications, and resources including job listings. This association is a convenient place for professionals to stay updated on new information and laws that pertain to psychology in forensics and corrections. The association aids professionals in developing treatment plans for individuals inside the corrections system, which could benefit someone just out of college who is looking to begin his or her career in the field of criminal psychology.
The tools and the guides are out there for the student looking to make the leap into a successful career. Their success, however, depends on their abilities and knowledge of the career they are getting into. For the individual aspiring to become a criminal psychologist, the IAFCP is an appropriate association to gain professional knowledge and skills.
References
Blumstein, A., & Beck, A. (1999). Population growth in u.s. prisons, 1980-1996 . Crime
and Justice, 26, 17-61.
(2007). International association for correctional and forensic psychology. Retrieved
July 9, 2009, from http://www.ia4cfp.org/index.php?submenu=Home&src=
The International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology (IAFCP) is “the voice of psychology in corrections” (IAFCP, 2007). The IAFCP works with other organizations such as the American Correctional Association, the International Corrections and Prisons Association, the Forensic Mental Health Association of California, and the American Psychological Association. The association is concerned with providing mental health services to criminals, and in the continued research and treatment of criminal behavior (IAFCP, 2007).
The number of criminals in the prison system has been on the rise since the 1980s; in fact, “state and federal incarceration rates grew by over 200 percent between 1980 and 1996” (Blumstein & Beck, 1999). The community has generally been uninterested in supporting any type of rehabilitation for prisoners, and mental illness often goes undiagnosed and untreated. Prisoners left untreated often get released back into society after serving time, only to commit more crimes and end up back in prison. In addition to the mentally ill inmates not receiving the treatment they need, many inmates have developed “severe depression, psychosis and even suicidal behavior” as a result of “incarceration and overcrowding” of prisons (IAFCP, 2007).
The IAFCP works with its affiliates to be a source of education regarding the mental health of prisoners and parolees. Their Web site has a multitude of information on, including information about membership, publications, and resources including job listings. This association is a convenient place for professionals to stay updated on new information and laws that pertain to psychology in forensics and corrections. The association aids professionals in developing treatment plans for individuals inside the corrections system, which could benefit someone just out of college who is looking to begin his or her career in the field of criminal psychology.
The tools and the guides are out there for the student looking to make the leap into a successful career. Their success, however, depends on their abilities and knowledge of the career they are getting into. For the individual aspiring to become a criminal psychologist, the IAFCP is an appropriate association to gain professional knowledge and skills.
References
Blumstein, A., & Beck, A. (1999). Population growth in u.s. prisons, 1980-1996 . Crime
and Justice, 26, 17-61.
(2007). International association for correctional and forensic psychology. Retrieved
July 9, 2009, from http://www.ia4cfp.org/index.php?submenu=Home&src=
Blahism: Modernization on Indigenous Cultures
Modernization is the “transformation of a society from a rural and agrarian condition to a secular, urban, and industrial one” (Britannica, 2009). The advancements of technology and Western civilization have affected almost the entire world. Wikipedia defines indigenous peoples as “any ethnic group of people who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest known historical connection, alongside immigrants which have populated the region and which are greater in number” (2009). There are many different tribes and cultures in many different nations including the Kayapo, Gullah, and Samoan aboriginal cultures.
These indigenous cultures have managed to adapt along with modern cultures and maintain their traditional values. Tradition-directedness is “the rigid conformity to time-honored ways of living” (Macionis, 2006). According to David Riesman, as quoted by Macionis, “living the good life” equals “doing what people have always done” (2006). This is common thinking within indigenous cultures and is highly misunderstood by most Westerners. Indigenous peoples are sometimes negatively characterized as “inferior, dangerous or primitive” because they do not share Western ideals and values on material possessions and technology (Gallhofer, et al, 2000). With all the technological advances in the Western world we have failed to successfully sustain our ecosystem and have begun to seek “the wisdom and insight of indigenous peoples” regarding our environmental concerns (Gallhofer, et al, 2000).
An article in the South China Morning Post depicts a man from the Brazilian Kayapo Indian tribe who moved to Canada after meeting an Ojibway woman from Canada. The two married and had children, and now the man “feels he is dying” in Canada (Gale, 2001). He moved back to the Amazon with his children to escape the Western lifestyle he felt forced to abide by, and he “wishes to hunt and fish again without government restrictions” (Gale, 2001). It was too hard for the man to accept the Western way of life since the Kayapo have only been in contact with Westerners for about 50 years (Gale, 2001). Kayapo Chief Raoni Metuktire is internationally known because of his fight to preserve the Amazon Rain Forest, and has even toured with the singer Sting (Gale, 2001). This is a clear example of Wilbur Zelinsky’s theory that indigenous cultures have been affected by the global manifestation of a “worldwide sharing of movies, comics, television programs, gadgets, popular music and dance, dress, cuisines, other forms of entertainment, and much else” (2009).
Other aboriginal leaders wishing to draw attention to “the impact of massive hydroelectric projects, mining and logging on native communities” invited Metuktire to Canada (Gale, 2001). He was quoted by the South China Morning Post as saying “I have seen the destruction of your land and I am very sad about that”, and he also feels that the man returning to Kayapo with his children are better off in the jungle living a more traditional lifestyle (2001). John Macionis raises an interesting point, though, about the Kayapo Indians. After recently becoming wealthy after mining gold and rich mahogany the tribe purchased a television set which has unfortunately “stolen the night” from the elders who used to sit with the tribe at night and speak of their ancestry and history (2006). It is not an unusual occurrence, however, to see a mixture of traditional and modern culture together. John Macionis points out other examples such as the mixture of ancient Confucian principles and “contemporary socialist thinking”; and “the latest modern technology” and traditional Islam principles in Saudi Arabia (2009). The purchase of a television is yet another example of Zelinsky’s theory of the manifestation of sharing of television programs and “other forms of entertainment” (2009).
There is nothing “wrong” with the Kayapo community, yet the theory of mass-society demands that they conform to modern regulation. Even though they are successful economically, they are still at risk of losing their culture because of something as simple as a television set. Modernization has infiltrated the aboriginal tribe and threatens to destroy their traditions, as they have no written language and depend on the oral depiction of their history passed down through generations (Macionis, 2006).
According to Wilbur Zelinsky “the forces of globalization, while obliterating some differences among places, are also breeding wholly new varieties of places and people” (2009). An example of Zelinsky’s theory of modernization on an indigenous culture is the Gullahs who reside on an island near the coast of South Carolina (Waldrip, 2003). The Gullah people are a creolized culture of the slave generation who moved away from the mainland and adopted universal African traditions. They merged their different tribal dialects with the English language to “form a new mode of oral expression” (Waldrip, 2003). There are very few people living on the island and they survive by fishing and creating traditional crafts for work; because there are so few people there are not many other options for jobs, and the elders worry that the children will not have the means to support themselves as adults (Macionis, 2006). As more wealthy mainlanders are looking to the island for vacation and summer homes, real estate value is rising and the locals are concerned about the rise of property taxes. The effect of modernization on the Gullah culture may drive young ones to the mainland for work while the real estate is taken over by wealthy white people. As a direct result of modernization and capitalism the Gullahs face the eventual elimination of their culture altogether (Macionis, 2006).
Samoan culture is interesting because they have embraced entrepreneurship in a way that many other indigenous cultures have not. They are capable of supporting their extended families and entire communities while maintaining their economy and trade with Westerners. Samoan indigenous entrepreneurship is a family based operation that depends on natural resources for survival (Morrison, 2008). Samoan families work together toward success, have little tolerance for laziness, and abide by the “expectation to give back more than asked for” to the community (Morrison, 2008). If someone in the community needs help they will aid that person in the hope of giving them the opportunity to be self-sufficient and to avoid creating dependency the community and others for success. Their work ethic is strong and honorable and focused on community well being instead of the biggest profit. As opposed to other economies “indigenous entrepreneurship relies on inalienable natural capital” and not financial and physical capital as is the case in modernized Western cultures (Morrison, 2008).
The “symbolic” exchange of the Samoan economy is that it is sustained directly by the family and does not require trading on the market. “Families can weave mats and grow pigs to create the symbols of exchange” (Morrison, 2008). This symbol of exchange offers monetary freedom to Samoans and gives them the control of what amount (how ever many mats or pigs as opposed to a strict dollar amount) is valuable in the market. This system is better equipped to handle inflation and deflation in the market without causing economic turmoil and corporate corruption and greed, as is evident in Western cultures. Since “all families are capable of weaving and growing pigs” it creates equality in the economic system of the community and “avoids creation of economic classes” (Morrison, 2008).
Different sociologists throughout history have had different theories about modernization and its effect on societies. Most theories coincide with the others, and some are slightly different from each other. The bottom line is that modernization has had a great effect on societies big and small, though theorists often differ on opinion of whether or not the effect is positive or negative. Ferdinand Tönnies was a German sociologist who developed the theories of modernization Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). Gemeinschaft means “human community” which is the aspect of society that is lost with modernization (Macionis, 2006). After the Industrial Revolution people became less tradition-directed and more self-focused which is the aspect of modernization Tönnies referred to as Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). According to Tönnies the cost of individual success, as perpetuated by capitalism or industrialization, is the loss of community.
French sociologist Emile Durkheim’s theory of mechanical solidarity explores pre-modernized societies that share a moral fiber. The opposing view to mechanical solidarity is his theory of the division of labor in which each person in society has a specialized job, and each person is dependent upon society as a whole, the very characteristic that the Samoan culture is trying to avoid (Macionis, 2006). Max Weber spoke of rationalization as a replacement of a traditional worldview. Viewing social change rationally means releasing the hold of tradition on society that keeps growth and advancement to a minimum. Weber called modernization “disenchanted” while realizing that “modern society turns away from the gods” (Macionis, 2006).
Karl Marx correlated modernization with the capitalist revolution and his theory embodied the theories of Tönnies, Durkheim, and Weber. According to Marx capitalism “weakened small communities, increased the division of labor, and encouraged a rational world view” (Macionis, 2006). Capitalism opened avenues for individual profit without limitation; and farmers and small town community members are drawn to the city in pursuit of success, leaving small towns barren and obsolete. Factories and industry are at the heart of capitalism and depend on the division of labor for success. The “pursuit of profit” is an evident result of rationalism that is also a large part of the continued success of capitalism. The focus of modernization is the individual; focus is no longer set on tradition as it is now set on advancing science, technology, and industry. This is the very aspect of modernization that is affecting the Kayapo Indians in Brazil. Social change, division of labor, and rationalization are necessary factors needed to propel modernization and these are not qualities that most indigenous cultures cultivate.
Other-directedness.
Global modernization.
Obviously Western culture and modernization have affected even the traditional aboriginal cultures predominantly cut off from modern society. But these smaller societies have made a conscious decision to denounce modern culture and preserve their traditional way of life. It is unfortunate for groups like the Gullahs who wish to maintain their culture but are being pushed into modernization against their will, but out of necessity for survival. Raoni Metuktire has utilized his associations with Western civilization to spread the word about the negative effects of modernization and we would be wiser to take advantage of his forgotten techniques of caring for the environment. Positive or negative, modernization is an inevitable factor in the future of the global community. The best way to deal with modernization is to remember the tradition-directedness of indigenous cultures as we progress with our technologies.
References
Gallhofer, S., Gibson, K., Haslam, J., McNicholas, P., Takiari, B. (2000). Developing
Environmental accounting: insights from indigenous cultures. Accounting,
Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 13.3. Retrieved from the University
Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/09513570010334937
Macionis, J.J. (2006). Society: the basics (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall
Morrison, K. (2008). Indigenous entrepreneurship in samoa in the face of neo-
Colonialism and globalization. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and
Places in the Global Economy, Vol. 2.3. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/17506200810897222
No Author (2001). Jungle beckons Amazonian weary of western ways. South China
Morning Post. General OneFile. Gale. Retrieved from the University Library
http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodld=ITOF
Waldrip, C.B. (2003). Gullah. Encyclopedia of American History: Colonization and
Settlement, 1608 to 1760, Vol. 2. New York. American History Online. Facts On
File. Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.fofweb.com/activelin2.asp
Wikipedia (2009). Indigenous peoples. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples
Zelinsky, W. (2009). Human dimensions of global change. Oxford Reference Online.
Retrieved from the University Library http://www.oxfordreference.com/views
These indigenous cultures have managed to adapt along with modern cultures and maintain their traditional values. Tradition-directedness is “the rigid conformity to time-honored ways of living” (Macionis, 2006). According to David Riesman, as quoted by Macionis, “living the good life” equals “doing what people have always done” (2006). This is common thinking within indigenous cultures and is highly misunderstood by most Westerners. Indigenous peoples are sometimes negatively characterized as “inferior, dangerous or primitive” because they do not share Western ideals and values on material possessions and technology (Gallhofer, et al, 2000). With all the technological advances in the Western world we have failed to successfully sustain our ecosystem and have begun to seek “the wisdom and insight of indigenous peoples” regarding our environmental concerns (Gallhofer, et al, 2000).
An article in the South China Morning Post depicts a man from the Brazilian Kayapo Indian tribe who moved to Canada after meeting an Ojibway woman from Canada. The two married and had children, and now the man “feels he is dying” in Canada (Gale, 2001). He moved back to the Amazon with his children to escape the Western lifestyle he felt forced to abide by, and he “wishes to hunt and fish again without government restrictions” (Gale, 2001). It was too hard for the man to accept the Western way of life since the Kayapo have only been in contact with Westerners for about 50 years (Gale, 2001). Kayapo Chief Raoni Metuktire is internationally known because of his fight to preserve the Amazon Rain Forest, and has even toured with the singer Sting (Gale, 2001). This is a clear example of Wilbur Zelinsky’s theory that indigenous cultures have been affected by the global manifestation of a “worldwide sharing of movies, comics, television programs, gadgets, popular music and dance, dress, cuisines, other forms of entertainment, and much else” (2009).
Other aboriginal leaders wishing to draw attention to “the impact of massive hydroelectric projects, mining and logging on native communities” invited Metuktire to Canada (Gale, 2001). He was quoted by the South China Morning Post as saying “I have seen the destruction of your land and I am very sad about that”, and he also feels that the man returning to Kayapo with his children are better off in the jungle living a more traditional lifestyle (2001). John Macionis raises an interesting point, though, about the Kayapo Indians. After recently becoming wealthy after mining gold and rich mahogany the tribe purchased a television set which has unfortunately “stolen the night” from the elders who used to sit with the tribe at night and speak of their ancestry and history (2006). It is not an unusual occurrence, however, to see a mixture of traditional and modern culture together. John Macionis points out other examples such as the mixture of ancient Confucian principles and “contemporary socialist thinking”; and “the latest modern technology” and traditional Islam principles in Saudi Arabia (2009). The purchase of a television is yet another example of Zelinsky’s theory of the manifestation of sharing of television programs and “other forms of entertainment” (2009).
There is nothing “wrong” with the Kayapo community, yet the theory of mass-society demands that they conform to modern regulation. Even though they are successful economically, they are still at risk of losing their culture because of something as simple as a television set. Modernization has infiltrated the aboriginal tribe and threatens to destroy their traditions, as they have no written language and depend on the oral depiction of their history passed down through generations (Macionis, 2006).
According to Wilbur Zelinsky “the forces of globalization, while obliterating some differences among places, are also breeding wholly new varieties of places and people” (2009). An example of Zelinsky’s theory of modernization on an indigenous culture is the Gullahs who reside on an island near the coast of South Carolina (Waldrip, 2003). The Gullah people are a creolized culture of the slave generation who moved away from the mainland and adopted universal African traditions. They merged their different tribal dialects with the English language to “form a new mode of oral expression” (Waldrip, 2003). There are very few people living on the island and they survive by fishing and creating traditional crafts for work; because there are so few people there are not many other options for jobs, and the elders worry that the children will not have the means to support themselves as adults (Macionis, 2006). As more wealthy mainlanders are looking to the island for vacation and summer homes, real estate value is rising and the locals are concerned about the rise of property taxes. The effect of modernization on the Gullah culture may drive young ones to the mainland for work while the real estate is taken over by wealthy white people. As a direct result of modernization and capitalism the Gullahs face the eventual elimination of their culture altogether (Macionis, 2006).
Samoan culture is interesting because they have embraced entrepreneurship in a way that many other indigenous cultures have not. They are capable of supporting their extended families and entire communities while maintaining their economy and trade with Westerners. Samoan indigenous entrepreneurship is a family based operation that depends on natural resources for survival (Morrison, 2008). Samoan families work together toward success, have little tolerance for laziness, and abide by the “expectation to give back more than asked for” to the community (Morrison, 2008). If someone in the community needs help they will aid that person in the hope of giving them the opportunity to be self-sufficient and to avoid creating dependency the community and others for success. Their work ethic is strong and honorable and focused on community well being instead of the biggest profit. As opposed to other economies “indigenous entrepreneurship relies on inalienable natural capital” and not financial and physical capital as is the case in modernized Western cultures (Morrison, 2008).
The “symbolic” exchange of the Samoan economy is that it is sustained directly by the family and does not require trading on the market. “Families can weave mats and grow pigs to create the symbols of exchange” (Morrison, 2008). This symbol of exchange offers monetary freedom to Samoans and gives them the control of what amount (how ever many mats or pigs as opposed to a strict dollar amount) is valuable in the market. This system is better equipped to handle inflation and deflation in the market without causing economic turmoil and corporate corruption and greed, as is evident in Western cultures. Since “all families are capable of weaving and growing pigs” it creates equality in the economic system of the community and “avoids creation of economic classes” (Morrison, 2008).
Different sociologists throughout history have had different theories about modernization and its effect on societies. Most theories coincide with the others, and some are slightly different from each other. The bottom line is that modernization has had a great effect on societies big and small, though theorists often differ on opinion of whether or not the effect is positive or negative. Ferdinand Tönnies was a German sociologist who developed the theories of modernization Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). Gemeinschaft means “human community” which is the aspect of society that is lost with modernization (Macionis, 2006). After the Industrial Revolution people became less tradition-directed and more self-focused which is the aspect of modernization Tönnies referred to as Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). According to Tönnies the cost of individual success, as perpetuated by capitalism or industrialization, is the loss of community.
French sociologist Emile Durkheim’s theory of mechanical solidarity explores pre-modernized societies that share a moral fiber. The opposing view to mechanical solidarity is his theory of the division of labor in which each person in society has a specialized job, and each person is dependent upon society as a whole, the very characteristic that the Samoan culture is trying to avoid (Macionis, 2006). Max Weber spoke of rationalization as a replacement of a traditional worldview. Viewing social change rationally means releasing the hold of tradition on society that keeps growth and advancement to a minimum. Weber called modernization “disenchanted” while realizing that “modern society turns away from the gods” (Macionis, 2006).
Karl Marx correlated modernization with the capitalist revolution and his theory embodied the theories of Tönnies, Durkheim, and Weber. According to Marx capitalism “weakened small communities, increased the division of labor, and encouraged a rational world view” (Macionis, 2006). Capitalism opened avenues for individual profit without limitation; and farmers and small town community members are drawn to the city in pursuit of success, leaving small towns barren and obsolete. Factories and industry are at the heart of capitalism and depend on the division of labor for success. The “pursuit of profit” is an evident result of rationalism that is also a large part of the continued success of capitalism. The focus of modernization is the individual; focus is no longer set on tradition as it is now set on advancing science, technology, and industry. This is the very aspect of modernization that is affecting the Kayapo Indians in Brazil. Social change, division of labor, and rationalization are necessary factors needed to propel modernization and these are not qualities that most indigenous cultures cultivate.
Other-directedness.
Global modernization.
Obviously Western culture and modernization have affected even the traditional aboriginal cultures predominantly cut off from modern society. But these smaller societies have made a conscious decision to denounce modern culture and preserve their traditional way of life. It is unfortunate for groups like the Gullahs who wish to maintain their culture but are being pushed into modernization against their will, but out of necessity for survival. Raoni Metuktire has utilized his associations with Western civilization to spread the word about the negative effects of modernization and we would be wiser to take advantage of his forgotten techniques of caring for the environment. Positive or negative, modernization is an inevitable factor in the future of the global community. The best way to deal with modernization is to remember the tradition-directedness of indigenous cultures as we progress with our technologies.
References
Gallhofer, S., Gibson, K., Haslam, J., McNicholas, P., Takiari, B. (2000). Developing
Environmental accounting: insights from indigenous cultures. Accounting,
Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 13.3. Retrieved from the University
Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/09513570010334937
Macionis, J.J. (2006). Society: the basics (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall
Morrison, K. (2008). Indigenous entrepreneurship in samoa in the face of neo-
Colonialism and globalization. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and
Places in the Global Economy, Vol. 2.3. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/17506200810897222
No Author (2001). Jungle beckons Amazonian weary of western ways. South China
Morning Post. General OneFile. Gale. Retrieved from the University Library
http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodld=ITOF
Waldrip, C.B. (2003). Gullah. Encyclopedia of American History: Colonization and
Settlement, 1608 to 1760, Vol. 2. New York. American History Online. Facts On
File. Retrieved from the University Library
http://www.fofweb.com/activelin2.asp
Wikipedia (2009). Indigenous peoples. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples
Zelinsky, W. (2009). Human dimensions of global change. Oxford Reference Online.
Retrieved from the University Library http://www.oxfordreference.com/views
Blahism: Significant Events
Each decade is made up of a series of events. Those who lived through it, and learned about by others through history lessons remember events from each decade. The string of events that comprise each decade is usually signified by a single event that leaves a lasting impression for decades to come. Events such as the Cold War, the Kennedy Assassination, the New Age of Reporting, the Reagan Administration, and the L.A. Riots are recorded in the minds of those who lived through them, and on the pages of history books throughout America. Although some events may have technically taken place in a previous decade, the effects are sometimes carried over into the next decade.
1950’s: Cold War America
The Cold War is a perfect example of one decade’s events carrying over into the next. The Cold War is the name used to describe the association between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II (Trueman, 2001). The rise of the Cold War began after the end of the Second World War when American’s suspicions of the Soviet Union’s agenda and communism peaked. The Cold War containment policy was the result of a cable sent by George Kennan, the Charge d’affaires in Moscow (Davidson, 2006). In an effort to take away power from communist Russia, Kennan sent his “long telegram” that described the Russian leaders’ extreme paranoia and inability to negotiate, and offered a “doctrine of containment” that was accepted by President Harry S. Truman (Davidson, 2006).
The decision to send economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey became known as the Truman Doctrine. This doctrine gave the executive branch more power to “step forward to help ‘free people’ threatened by ‘totalitarian regimes’” (Davidson, 2006). In an effort to aid the still-suffering Western Europe, Secretary of State George C. Marshall introduced a plan to welcome European countries to request economic help. The Marshall Plan was successful in helping Western Europeans recover their broken economy. At the same time the Marshall Plan inadvertently put the blame for the division of Europe on the heads of the soviets. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created, which strengthened the barrier against communism and the Soviet take over of Germany. These policies were implemented in the 40’s but paved the way of the American attitude in the 1950’s. The Cold War and Anti-communism was the theme of post-war America and the basis for political propaganda through the 1960’s. While the Cold War originated in the 1940’s and grew most of its strength in the 1950’s, it lasted through the end of the 1980’s and that is why it is the most significant event of the 50’s.
1960’s: JFK Assassination
Ask anyone who was alive at the time where they were on November 22, 1963 and they will be able to tell you. The assassination of John F. Kennedy left a lasting impression on the people of the United States, so much so that they are able to remember exactly where they were and what they were doing when they heard JFK had been shot. He was the youngest President ever elected, and had many great ideas for his New Frontier
Since President Kennedy already had the support of the Liberal and Democrat Parties, he had scheduled an event in the South to gain Republican support. A motorcade in honor of the President was in procession in Dallas on that fateful day. The President’s wife was sitting next to him in the back seat of the convertible 1961 Lincoln Continental (Wiki, 2009). The President was shot twice and pronounced dead 30 minutes later (Kauffman, 2008). Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and then he was assassinated by Jacob Rubenstein, AKA Jack Ruby, who owned a local nightclub (Kauffman, 2008). At that point conspiracy theories took over and there is still not a total agreement on the actual circumstances of the assassination.
The controversy surrounding the assassination prompted the government to assign the case to U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Warren Commission found that Oswald had acted alone, firing three shots at the President from the Book Depository building (Kauffman, 2008). Conspiracy theorists accused the Commission of “covering up or ignoring evidence” that there was a second gunman situated on the grassy knoll on the other side of the street (Kauffman, 2008). In 1978 the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) was assigned to the case and they believed there was a second gunman, but did not know who the other conspirator was. Many theories were introduced as to who helped Oswald assassinate the President including the Mafia, Fidel Castro, and the Soviet Union (Kauffman, 2008). The Justice Department in 1980 opened a “limited investigation”, and the JFK Act was passed in 1993 commanding the government to publish all documents and files relating to the incident. The assassination of President Kennedy was the most significant event of the 60’s because people are still talking about and investigating it, and conspiracy still surrounds the event to this day.
1970’s: New Age of Reporting
The 1970’s was a decade of new journalism and reporting, and a decade of public outrage. People were angry about what was going on in the country and with television coverage coming home of the Vietnam War, they were developing an increasing interest in politics. Americans saw what was happening and it did not matter what positive spin the government and the media tried to put on it the footage spoke for itself. Protestors rose up against the war and the government reaction led to more protests after news quickly spread about the shootings at Kent and Jackson State Universities. The release of the publication of the Pentagon Papers in the New York Times allowed people to see through the lies that dug the U.S. deeper into an un-winnable war (Apple, 1996). The people were furious and becoming more outspoken against the government.
Sometimes the things we fear the most are brought into reality and that is just what happened with President Richard Nixon. Nixon felt he was unfairly represented by Liberals, and by the media and he felt like a “person surrounded by enemies who conspired against him” (Davidson, 2006). His fear became a reality as news broke of his scandalous involvement in the Watergate incident. He resigned after the release of taped conversations showing that “Nixon knew the burglars were tied to the White House” and he was charged with obstructing justice, abusing constitutional authority, and hindering the investigation of the Watergate Scandal (Davidson, 2006). Reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward from the Washington Post investigated the incident from the beginning and reported all the details through Nixon’s resignation. Their investigative reporting changed journalism and American politics forever. Nixon himself even tried to use the media to claim his innocence by doing a television interview with T.V. personality David Frost.
The new age of reporting in the 1970’s opened many avenues for people to become involved in current affairs, and to get their opinions and causes heard. With Gonzo journalism, eye witness televised news broadcasts, and investigative reporting all making debuts in the media, the new age of reporting was the most significant event of the 70’s and paved the way for all future journalists, reporters, and avenues of media.
1980’s: Reagan Administration
The 1980’s can be mostly be remembered by the Presidency of Ronald Reagan. Reagan was a Hollywood actor that brought his big-screen skills and charm with him to Washington D.C. Conservatives adopted the Republican Party and together they became the unthinking majority that got Reagan elected in a landslide election. Even though Ronald Reagan did not attend church services, he proclaimed his faith in God, which was enough for most people. His policies included tax cuts for the rich, a higher tax bracket for the working middle class, and heavy deregulation that almost destroyed John F. Kennedy’s and Lyndon B. Johnson’s New Frontier and Great Society policies that aided the poor. He was “the great communicator” and the media received and portrayed him well. Amidst promises to “reawaken the industrial giant, to get government back within its means, and to lighten our punitive tax burden”, Reagan accomplished a lot while actually having very little involvement in the implementation of his policies (Davidson, 2006).
According to right-wing conservatives like John Hawkins, the Reagan Administration (1.) Slashed taxes, created 20 million jobs, and increased revenue; (2.) Rebuilt and strengthened America’s military, which allowed for “success” in the Gulf War; (3.) “Convince[d] the Soviets that they couldn’t [sic] compete with America” with the Star Wars program; (4.) Defeated the Soviet Union; and (5.) Rebuilt the Republican Party (2001), which was then totally destroyed by the G.W. Bush Administration. Love him or hate him, Ronald Reagan was the voice of the 80’s.
1990’s: Rodney King & the L.A. Riots
It was the 90’s and a black suspect had accused the Los Angeles Police Department of beating him. Yawn. Accept this accusation was different from every other accusation of the same thing, why? Because this time “a man in a nearby apartment videotaped the beating, which the news media repeatedly broadcast to the entire nation” (Davidson, 2006). It was not unusual for a black person to be the victim of police brutality, but now there was independent video evidence and the country was paying attention. Four officers were put on trial for using excessive force but were acquitted by an all-white jury that had concluded “that King had been threatening and that the officers had acted within their authority” (Davidson, 2006). This caused a rage among the African American population in L.A. and six days of “looting, assault, arson and murder” ensued (Wiki, 2009). Thousands were injured during the riots and 53 people died.
The reason the Rodney King Riots in L.A. was the most significant event in the 90’s is because it shown a light on racism and corruption in the police department. The Christopher Commission (the commission assigned to review the case) found that there was quite a problem with repeat offenders in the police department.
Of approximately 1,800 officers against whom an allegation of excessive force or
improper tactics was made from 1986 to 1990, more than 1,400 had only on or
two allegations. But 183 officers had four or more allegations, forty-four had six
or more, sixteen had eight or more, and one had sixteen such allegations.
(Wiki, 2009).
The officers that had six or more allegations were reprimanded, and changes began to take place inside the department. One has to wonder, however, after the Riots in 1992, the Mark Fuhrman incident in the O.J. Simpson trial in 1994, and the Rampart Scandal in 1996, were those changes enough to quell the controversy of the LAPD?
The significance of the corruption in Los Angeles has been signified in many different television shows and movies including Crash, Heat, Training Day, L.A. Confidential, and more recently Lakeview Terrace and Changeling. The most significant events are the ones that people remember the most. Time goes by and the future becomes history, sometimes remembered and sometimes forgotten. People are aware of past events based on the attention paid to them and people pay the most attention to high profile events. Through elder family members, history books, literature, newspaper archives, T.V. shows and movies future generations learn of the most significant events of past decades.
References
Apple Jr., R. (1996). Pentagon papers. New York Times. Topics Pentagon Papers.
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/p/pentagon_papers/index.html
Davidson, J. (Ed.). (2006). Nation of nations: A concise narrative of the American
Republic (4th ed., Vol. 2). New York: McGraw-Hill
Hawkins, J. (2001). Reagan 101. Right Wing News Web site
http://rightwingnews.com/john/reagan.php
Kauffman, J. (2008). Kennedy Assassination. Issues & Controversies in American
History. Facts on File News Services Retrieved from University Library
http://swtuopproxy.museglobal.com/MuseSessionID=2ff265b17d38ace4c24f06453195041/MuseHost=www.2facts.com/MusePath/ICAH/temp/81360temphaa00002170.asp?DBType=ICAH
Trueman, C. (2001). What was the cold war. History Learning Site Web site
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/whatwasthecoldwar.htm
Wikipedia (2009).
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_car_was_President_John_F._Kennedy_driving_in_when_shot
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department
1950’s: Cold War America
The Cold War is a perfect example of one decade’s events carrying over into the next. The Cold War is the name used to describe the association between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II (Trueman, 2001). The rise of the Cold War began after the end of the Second World War when American’s suspicions of the Soviet Union’s agenda and communism peaked. The Cold War containment policy was the result of a cable sent by George Kennan, the Charge d’affaires in Moscow (Davidson, 2006). In an effort to take away power from communist Russia, Kennan sent his “long telegram” that described the Russian leaders’ extreme paranoia and inability to negotiate, and offered a “doctrine of containment” that was accepted by President Harry S. Truman (Davidson, 2006).
The decision to send economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey became known as the Truman Doctrine. This doctrine gave the executive branch more power to “step forward to help ‘free people’ threatened by ‘totalitarian regimes’” (Davidson, 2006). In an effort to aid the still-suffering Western Europe, Secretary of State George C. Marshall introduced a plan to welcome European countries to request economic help. The Marshall Plan was successful in helping Western Europeans recover their broken economy. At the same time the Marshall Plan inadvertently put the blame for the division of Europe on the heads of the soviets. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created, which strengthened the barrier against communism and the Soviet take over of Germany. These policies were implemented in the 40’s but paved the way of the American attitude in the 1950’s. The Cold War and Anti-communism was the theme of post-war America and the basis for political propaganda through the 1960’s. While the Cold War originated in the 1940’s and grew most of its strength in the 1950’s, it lasted through the end of the 1980’s and that is why it is the most significant event of the 50’s.
1960’s: JFK Assassination
Ask anyone who was alive at the time where they were on November 22, 1963 and they will be able to tell you. The assassination of John F. Kennedy left a lasting impression on the people of the United States, so much so that they are able to remember exactly where they were and what they were doing when they heard JFK had been shot. He was the youngest President ever elected, and had many great ideas for his New Frontier
Since President Kennedy already had the support of the Liberal and Democrat Parties, he had scheduled an event in the South to gain Republican support. A motorcade in honor of the President was in procession in Dallas on that fateful day. The President’s wife was sitting next to him in the back seat of the convertible 1961 Lincoln Continental (Wiki, 2009). The President was shot twice and pronounced dead 30 minutes later (Kauffman, 2008). Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and then he was assassinated by Jacob Rubenstein, AKA Jack Ruby, who owned a local nightclub (Kauffman, 2008). At that point conspiracy theories took over and there is still not a total agreement on the actual circumstances of the assassination.
The controversy surrounding the assassination prompted the government to assign the case to U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Warren Commission found that Oswald had acted alone, firing three shots at the President from the Book Depository building (Kauffman, 2008). Conspiracy theorists accused the Commission of “covering up or ignoring evidence” that there was a second gunman situated on the grassy knoll on the other side of the street (Kauffman, 2008). In 1978 the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) was assigned to the case and they believed there was a second gunman, but did not know who the other conspirator was. Many theories were introduced as to who helped Oswald assassinate the President including the Mafia, Fidel Castro, and the Soviet Union (Kauffman, 2008). The Justice Department in 1980 opened a “limited investigation”, and the JFK Act was passed in 1993 commanding the government to publish all documents and files relating to the incident. The assassination of President Kennedy was the most significant event of the 60’s because people are still talking about and investigating it, and conspiracy still surrounds the event to this day.
1970’s: New Age of Reporting
The 1970’s was a decade of new journalism and reporting, and a decade of public outrage. People were angry about what was going on in the country and with television coverage coming home of the Vietnam War, they were developing an increasing interest in politics. Americans saw what was happening and it did not matter what positive spin the government and the media tried to put on it the footage spoke for itself. Protestors rose up against the war and the government reaction led to more protests after news quickly spread about the shootings at Kent and Jackson State Universities. The release of the publication of the Pentagon Papers in the New York Times allowed people to see through the lies that dug the U.S. deeper into an un-winnable war (Apple, 1996). The people were furious and becoming more outspoken against the government.
Sometimes the things we fear the most are brought into reality and that is just what happened with President Richard Nixon. Nixon felt he was unfairly represented by Liberals, and by the media and he felt like a “person surrounded by enemies who conspired against him” (Davidson, 2006). His fear became a reality as news broke of his scandalous involvement in the Watergate incident. He resigned after the release of taped conversations showing that “Nixon knew the burglars were tied to the White House” and he was charged with obstructing justice, abusing constitutional authority, and hindering the investigation of the Watergate Scandal (Davidson, 2006). Reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward from the Washington Post investigated the incident from the beginning and reported all the details through Nixon’s resignation. Their investigative reporting changed journalism and American politics forever. Nixon himself even tried to use the media to claim his innocence by doing a television interview with T.V. personality David Frost.
The new age of reporting in the 1970’s opened many avenues for people to become involved in current affairs, and to get their opinions and causes heard. With Gonzo journalism, eye witness televised news broadcasts, and investigative reporting all making debuts in the media, the new age of reporting was the most significant event of the 70’s and paved the way for all future journalists, reporters, and avenues of media.
1980’s: Reagan Administration
The 1980’s can be mostly be remembered by the Presidency of Ronald Reagan. Reagan was a Hollywood actor that brought his big-screen skills and charm with him to Washington D.C. Conservatives adopted the Republican Party and together they became the unthinking majority that got Reagan elected in a landslide election. Even though Ronald Reagan did not attend church services, he proclaimed his faith in God, which was enough for most people. His policies included tax cuts for the rich, a higher tax bracket for the working middle class, and heavy deregulation that almost destroyed John F. Kennedy’s and Lyndon B. Johnson’s New Frontier and Great Society policies that aided the poor. He was “the great communicator” and the media received and portrayed him well. Amidst promises to “reawaken the industrial giant, to get government back within its means, and to lighten our punitive tax burden”, Reagan accomplished a lot while actually having very little involvement in the implementation of his policies (Davidson, 2006).
According to right-wing conservatives like John Hawkins, the Reagan Administration (1.) Slashed taxes, created 20 million jobs, and increased revenue; (2.) Rebuilt and strengthened America’s military, which allowed for “success” in the Gulf War; (3.) “Convince[d] the Soviets that they couldn’t [sic] compete with America” with the Star Wars program; (4.) Defeated the Soviet Union; and (5.) Rebuilt the Republican Party (2001), which was then totally destroyed by the G.W. Bush Administration. Love him or hate him, Ronald Reagan was the voice of the 80’s.
1990’s: Rodney King & the L.A. Riots
It was the 90’s and a black suspect had accused the Los Angeles Police Department of beating him. Yawn. Accept this accusation was different from every other accusation of the same thing, why? Because this time “a man in a nearby apartment videotaped the beating, which the news media repeatedly broadcast to the entire nation” (Davidson, 2006). It was not unusual for a black person to be the victim of police brutality, but now there was independent video evidence and the country was paying attention. Four officers were put on trial for using excessive force but were acquitted by an all-white jury that had concluded “that King had been threatening and that the officers had acted within their authority” (Davidson, 2006). This caused a rage among the African American population in L.A. and six days of “looting, assault, arson and murder” ensued (Wiki, 2009). Thousands were injured during the riots and 53 people died.
The reason the Rodney King Riots in L.A. was the most significant event in the 90’s is because it shown a light on racism and corruption in the police department. The Christopher Commission (the commission assigned to review the case) found that there was quite a problem with repeat offenders in the police department.
Of approximately 1,800 officers against whom an allegation of excessive force or
improper tactics was made from 1986 to 1990, more than 1,400 had only on or
two allegations. But 183 officers had four or more allegations, forty-four had six
or more, sixteen had eight or more, and one had sixteen such allegations.
(Wiki, 2009).
The officers that had six or more allegations were reprimanded, and changes began to take place inside the department. One has to wonder, however, after the Riots in 1992, the Mark Fuhrman incident in the O.J. Simpson trial in 1994, and the Rampart Scandal in 1996, were those changes enough to quell the controversy of the LAPD?
The significance of the corruption in Los Angeles has been signified in many different television shows and movies including Crash, Heat, Training Day, L.A. Confidential, and more recently Lakeview Terrace and Changeling. The most significant events are the ones that people remember the most. Time goes by and the future becomes history, sometimes remembered and sometimes forgotten. People are aware of past events based on the attention paid to them and people pay the most attention to high profile events. Through elder family members, history books, literature, newspaper archives, T.V. shows and movies future generations learn of the most significant events of past decades.
References
Apple Jr., R. (1996). Pentagon papers. New York Times. Topics Pentagon Papers.
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/p/pentagon_papers/index.html
Davidson, J. (Ed.). (2006). Nation of nations: A concise narrative of the American
Republic (4th ed., Vol. 2). New York: McGraw-Hill
Hawkins, J. (2001). Reagan 101. Right Wing News Web site
http://rightwingnews.com/john/reagan.php
Kauffman, J. (2008). Kennedy Assassination. Issues & Controversies in American
History. Facts on File News Services Retrieved from University Library
http://swtuopproxy.museglobal.com/MuseSessionID=2ff265b17d38ace4c24f06453195041/MuseHost=www.2facts.com/MusePath/ICAH/temp/81360temphaa00002170.asp?DBType=ICAH
Trueman, C. (2001). What was the cold war. History Learning Site Web site
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/whatwasthecoldwar.htm
Wikipedia (2009).
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_car_was_President_John_F._Kennedy_driving_in_when_shot
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department
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