Modernization is the “transformation of a society from a rural and agrarian condition to a secular, urban, and industrial one” (Britannica, 2009). The advancements of technology and Western civilization have affected almost the entire world. Wikipedia defines indigenous peoples as “any ethnic group of people who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest known historical connection, alongside immigrants which have populated the region and which are greater in number” (2009). There are many different tribes and cultures in many different nations including the Kayapo, Gullah, and Samoan aboriginal cultures.
These indigenous cultures have managed to adapt along with modern cultures and maintain their traditional values. Tradition-directedness is “the rigid conformity to time-honored ways of living” (Macionis, 2006). According to David Riesman, as quoted by Macionis, “living the good life” equals “doing what people have always done” (2006). This is common thinking within indigenous cultures and is highly misunderstood by most Westerners. Indigenous peoples are sometimes negatively characterized as “inferior, dangerous or primitive” because they do not share Western ideals and values on material possessions and technology (Gallhofer, et al, 2000). With all the technological advances in the Western world we have failed to successfully sustain our ecosystem and have begun to seek “the wisdom and insight of indigenous peoples” regarding our environmental concerns (Gallhofer, et al, 2000).
An article in the South China Morning Post depicts a man from the Brazilian Kayapo Indian tribe who moved to Canada after meeting an Ojibway woman from Canada. The two married and had children, and now the man “feels he is dying” in Canada (Gale, 2001). He moved back to the Amazon with his children to escape the Western lifestyle he felt forced to abide by, and he “wishes to hunt and fish again without government restrictions” (Gale, 2001). It was too hard for the man to accept the Western way of life since the Kayapo have only been in contact with Westerners for about 50 years (Gale, 2001). Kayapo Chief Raoni Metuktire is internationally known because of his fight to preserve the Amazon Rain Forest, and has even toured with the singer Sting (Gale, 2001). This is a clear example of Wilbur Zelinsky’s theory that indigenous cultures have been affected by the global manifestation of a “worldwide sharing of movies, comics, television programs, gadgets, popular music and dance, dress, cuisines, other forms of entertainment, and much else” (2009).
Other aboriginal leaders wishing to draw attention to “the impact of massive hydroelectric projects, mining and logging on native communities” invited Metuktire to Canada (Gale, 2001). He was quoted by the South China Morning Post as saying “I have seen the destruction of your land and I am very sad about that”, and he also feels that the man returning to Kayapo with his children are better off in the jungle living a more traditional lifestyle (2001). John Macionis raises an interesting point, though, about the Kayapo Indians. After recently becoming wealthy after mining gold and rich mahogany the tribe purchased a television set which has unfortunately “stolen the night” from the elders who used to sit with the tribe at night and speak of their ancestry and history (2006). It is not an unusual occurrence, however, to see a mixture of traditional and modern culture together. John Macionis points out other examples such as the mixture of ancient Confucian principles and “contemporary socialist thinking”; and “the latest modern technology” and traditional Islam principles in Saudi Arabia (2009). The purchase of a television is yet another example of Zelinsky’s theory of the manifestation of sharing of television programs and “other forms of entertainment” (2009).
There is nothing “wrong” with the Kayapo community, yet the theory of mass-society demands that they conform to modern regulation. Even though they are successful economically, they are still at risk of losing their culture because of something as simple as a television set. Modernization has infiltrated the aboriginal tribe and threatens to destroy their traditions, as they have no written language and depend on the oral depiction of their history passed down through generations (Macionis, 2006).
According to Wilbur Zelinsky “the forces of globalization, while obliterating some differences among places, are also breeding wholly new varieties of places and people” (2009). An example of Zelinsky’s theory of modernization on an indigenous culture is the Gullahs who reside on an island near the coast of South Carolina (Waldrip, 2003). The Gullah people are a creolized culture of the slave generation who moved away from the mainland and adopted universal African traditions. They merged their different tribal dialects with the English language to “form a new mode of oral expression” (Waldrip, 2003). There are very few people living on the island and they survive by fishing and creating traditional crafts for work; because there are so few people there are not many other options for jobs, and the elders worry that the children will not have the means to support themselves as adults (Macionis, 2006). As more wealthy mainlanders are looking to the island for vacation and summer homes, real estate value is rising and the locals are concerned about the rise of property taxes. The effect of modernization on the Gullah culture may drive young ones to the mainland for work while the real estate is taken over by wealthy white people. As a direct result of modernization and capitalism the Gullahs face the eventual elimination of their culture altogether (Macionis, 2006).
Samoan culture is interesting because they have embraced entrepreneurship in a way that many other indigenous cultures have not. They are capable of supporting their extended families and entire communities while maintaining their economy and trade with Westerners. Samoan indigenous entrepreneurship is a family based operation that depends on natural resources for survival (Morrison, 2008). Samoan families work together toward success, have little tolerance for laziness, and abide by the “expectation to give back more than asked for” to the community (Morrison, 2008). If someone in the community needs help they will aid that person in the hope of giving them the opportunity to be self-sufficient and to avoid creating dependency the community and others for success. Their work ethic is strong and honorable and focused on community well being instead of the biggest profit. As opposed to other economies “indigenous entrepreneurship relies on inalienable natural capital” and not financial and physical capital as is the case in modernized Western cultures (Morrison, 2008).
The “symbolic” exchange of the Samoan economy is that it is sustained directly by the family and does not require trading on the market. “Families can weave mats and grow pigs to create the symbols of exchange” (Morrison, 2008). This symbol of exchange offers monetary freedom to Samoans and gives them the control of what amount (how ever many mats or pigs as opposed to a strict dollar amount) is valuable in the market. This system is better equipped to handle inflation and deflation in the market without causing economic turmoil and corporate corruption and greed, as is evident in Western cultures. Since “all families are capable of weaving and growing pigs” it creates equality in the economic system of the community and “avoids creation of economic classes” (Morrison, 2008).
Different sociologists throughout history have had different theories about modernization and its effect on societies. Most theories coincide with the others, and some are slightly different from each other. The bottom line is that modernization has had a great effect on societies big and small, though theorists often differ on opinion of whether or not the effect is positive or negative. Ferdinand Tönnies was a German sociologist who developed the theories of modernization Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). Gemeinschaft means “human community” which is the aspect of society that is lost with modernization (Macionis, 2006). After the Industrial Revolution people became less tradition-directed and more self-focused which is the aspect of modernization Tönnies referred to as Gesellschaft (Macionis, 2006). According to Tönnies the cost of individual success, as perpetuated by capitalism or industrialization, is the loss of community.
French sociologist Emile Durkheim’s theory of mechanical solidarity explores pre-modernized societies that share a moral fiber. The opposing view to mechanical solidarity is his theory of the division of labor in which each person in society has a specialized job, and each person is dependent upon society as a whole, the very characteristic that the Samoan culture is trying to avoid (Macionis, 2006). Max Weber spoke of rationalization as a replacement of a traditional worldview. Viewing social change rationally means releasing the hold of tradition on society that keeps growth and advancement to a minimum. Weber called modernization “disenchanted” while realizing that “modern society turns away from the gods” (Macionis, 2006).
Karl Marx correlated modernization with the capitalist revolution and his theory embodied the theories of Tönnies, Durkheim, and Weber. According to Marx capitalism “weakened small communities, increased the division of labor, and encouraged a rational world view” (Macionis, 2006). Capitalism opened avenues for individual profit without limitation; and farmers and small town community members are drawn to the city in pursuit of success, leaving small towns barren and obsolete. Factories and industry are at the heart of capitalism and depend on the division of labor for success. The “pursuit of profit” is an evident result of rationalism that is also a large part of the continued success of capitalism. The focus of modernization is the individual; focus is no longer set on tradition as it is now set on advancing science, technology, and industry. This is the very aspect of modernization that is affecting the Kayapo Indians in Brazil. Social change, division of labor, and rationalization are necessary factors needed to propel modernization and these are not qualities that most indigenous cultures cultivate.
Other-directedness.
Global modernization.
Obviously Western culture and modernization have affected even the traditional aboriginal cultures predominantly cut off from modern society. But these smaller societies have made a conscious decision to denounce modern culture and preserve their traditional way of life. It is unfortunate for groups like the Gullahs who wish to maintain their culture but are being pushed into modernization against their will, but out of necessity for survival. Raoni Metuktire has utilized his associations with Western civilization to spread the word about the negative effects of modernization and we would be wiser to take advantage of his forgotten techniques of caring for the environment. Positive or negative, modernization is an inevitable factor in the future of the global community. The best way to deal with modernization is to remember the tradition-directedness of indigenous cultures as we progress with our technologies.
References
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