Foundations of Psychology
Four major schools of thought embody the foundations of psychology: Psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, and evolutionary. Scientists use these different perspectives to understand the how and why of human behavior, since one correct way to define or interpret psychology has not yet been invented. Behavioral neuroscience, or biopsychology, is another tool scientists use to understand the inner workings of the mind (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 4). A person’s behavior can be explained by different systems in the body, including: Neurons, the endocrine system, nervous systems, and a person’s individual genetic makeup.
Major Schools of Thought
The psychodynamic perspective assumes that a person’s behavior is based on how they think, feel, or what they want. Often, the action associated with these thoughts and feelings are “outside of conscious awareness” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 11). The psychodynamic theory suggests opposition is usually apparent between a person’s true thoughts and feelings, and the behavior outwardly expressed. Psychodynamic psychologists use psychoanalysis to gain information about a person’s inner self by studying the things they do and say. Psychodynamic analysis shows that “people reveal themselves in everything they do” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p.12).
The idea that behavior is controlled by learning from experiences, from objects in one’s environment, and from external stimuli is the perspective of behaviorism. Behavioral science is an experimental science, and behavioral therapists are still learning how this science can help people control their behavior. The study of behaviorism has been beneficial to people seeking to “quit smoking or drinking” because these are learned behaviors that can be unlearned (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 15). A classic example of the behaviorist perspective is the experiments performed by Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) in which he was studying the relation of salivation and the digestive system of dogs (PBS, 1998). His dogs learned that meals were accompanied by a certain sound and, after time, would begin to salivate upon hearing this sound.
People’s brains work in a way that is similar to how a computer attains, stores, and reproduces information. The cognitive perspective refers to the way that people react to situations, how their brains process memories for storage and use, and how they exhibit problem-solving skills. Cognitive therapy is one of the most popular forms of modern therapy used by psychologists today. The evolutionary perspective can be defined by certain human behaviors that are a part of our nature, and stem from the desire to survive and preserve our species. Nature and nurture responses are delegated to the evolutionary perspective, as is the fight or flight responses.
Biological Foundations of Psychology
The Encyclopedia of Psychology defines the Nervous System as “an electrochemical conducting network that transmits messages from the brain through the nerves to locations throughout the body” (Strickland, 2001). The nervous system is responsible for many processes, including the manifestation of our psychological behavior. Three types of neurons can be found that aid in the function of the nervous system: sensory, motor, and interneurons. The information delivered to the brain from the receptors in the body is responsible for relaying sensations, such as pain or delight. Motor neurons carry information that helps the brain regulate motor movement. The motor movements can be voluntary or can happen without us thinking about it, like “digestion and heartbeat” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 62).
Neurons receive their information from dendrites, the “branchlike extensions of the neuron” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Information is delivered between neurons via synapses, where the information is carried through the axon, “a long extension from the cell body,” to the dendrites (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 63). Neurotransmitters are the information, or the “chemical messages” that are transmitted between the cells. Glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine (Ach), and endorphins are all types of neurotransmitters that are responsible for different feelings and emotions that humans have (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 68).
“The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 71). The chemicals delivered from the glands are hormones. The different glands which house the hormones are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, testes, and ovaries. Hormones, like neurotransmitters, are responsible for different chemical reactions in our bodies that can provoke actions, like creating eggs in women for fertilization, and growth in children and teenagers. An imbalance of hormones in our bodies can have a negative effect on our feelings and moods.
Kowalski and Westen mention that the endocrine system plays a key role in our psychological makeup, but “the center of our psychological experience is the nervous system” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 73). The central and the peripheral nervous system make up the two parts to the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, and the peripheral system is comprised of the neurons that transmit information to the central nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord, hindbrain (medulla oblongata, reticular activating system, cerebellum), midbrain (tectum, tegmentum), subcortical forebrain (hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, amygdala, hippocampus, basal ganglia), and the cerebral cortex (Occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal lobes). These systems intricately work with one another to keep us alive and upright, awake or asleep, aware or dreaming, and happy or sad.
Lastly, genetics and evolution play a major role in how humans behave. Human beings share half of our father’s DNA and half of our mother’s DNA. The genes we get from our parents can “influence both intellectual functioning and personality” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005, p. 91). The evolutionary perspective is supported by the evolution of genetics, in that it directly relates to nature/nurture responses and is responsible for natural selection. The stronger genes that contribute to survival are the genes that survive and ultimately get passed down through generations.
Along with the evolutionary perspective, psychodynamic, behaviorist, and cognitive perspectives are the foundations of psychology. Psychologists all over the world study these perspectives, and each theory has specialists devoted it. To better understand human behavior, scientists have turned to what is inside the body that affects our psychology. With the aid of neurotransmitters, hormones, and DNA, scientists are acquiring a better understanding of why we are the way we are, as human beings, and as individuals.
References
Kowalski, R.M., & Westen, D. (2005). Psychology, 4e.
PBS. (1998). People and discoveries. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpavl.html
Strickland, B.R. (2001). Nervous system. Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2nd ed. Gale
Cengage. eNotes.com. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.enotes.com/gale-psychology-encyclopedia/nervous-system
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