Bitches Love Sonnets

Rocking Unwritten Law Lately, it just fits

I can feel the world upon my back, I got 16 people breathing down my neck

And it's kind of hard to keep your head afloat, but when the rain won't stop and you're face is soaked

But I'm all right, I'm all right

So just hang on cuz

I won't be long and

Just sing that song to me

Cuz I'm in love with you in love me

--Unwritten Law - Elva

Unwritten Law -- Up All Night

Can we talk about automatic satisfaction, sittin back relaxin floored

What's wrong with kickin it, when your bored and lit

Lets smoke some cigarettes and catch up on the back porch, fire up another roach

We don't need a rest this is just a test

Cuz we're all right, we're up all night

To see the sun come up again

Just one more time no reason why

To see the sun come up again.

The more we try to change the more we stay the same

We're caught up in the game and just like empty picture frames, so now we're to blame

Said we were gettin down on Genesee and Fountain, smelled another mountain

If you ain't gettin down you'll come around

And we're all right, we're up all night

To see the sun come up again

Just one more time, no reason why

To see the sun come up again.

So let's smoke some cigarettes and catch up on the back porch, fire up another roach

We don't need a rest, it's just a test, and as the world spins we'll watch it with a grin

And look in as the day begins, well now it's on again, it's dawn again.

And we're all right

We're up all night

To see the sun come up again

Just one more time, no reason why

To see the sun come up again.

Blahism: Language

Language

            Language is what sets human beings apart from the rest of the animal world. While it is true that animals communicate with each other through sounds and gestures, and can even communicate with humans, they do not embody the same brain mechanisms and cognitive processes that give humans the ability to create and speak language. Certain properties define language, and there are different levels that elaborate the complexity of language. The discipline of cognitive psychology examines the role language plays in the processes of human brain function.

Definition of Language

            Merriam-Webster defines language as “…a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings” (2010, para. 1). The properties of language are: Communicative, arbitrary, structured, generative, and dynamic (Willmingham, 2004). The communicative property of language allows communication between individuals. Animals are communicative in that they are able to signal others to alert them to the presence of food or danger. The arbitrary property of language pertains to the relationship between the elements of language and their meaning (Willmingham, 2004). The meaning of a sound or symbol is arbitrary; there is no specific reason why a word means something, it just does. “Hey you” could be an accusation, a greeting, or an attempt to get someone’s attention. Animal communication is also arbitrary; the bark of a dog could mean “what is that noise?” or it could also mean “I am bored, come play with me.” Animal communication may also be dynamic because new sounds can be added but each utterance is singular, and has only one meaning (Willmingham, 2004). Language is dynamic because the rules of grammar are always changing with the addition of new words.

            Where human language differs from animal communication is in the structure and generativity of language. “Language is structured, meaning that the pattern of symbols is not arbitrary” (Willmingham, 2004, p. 411). The placement of words within a sentence is what gives the sentence meaning. “Will I now do homework?” asks a question, whereas “I will now do homework” makes a statement. The generative property of language means that new words can be added or combined to form a limitless number of meanings (Willmingham, 2004). Just as language is dynamic, and some languages die out and new ones are created, humans generate new meanings to words in existing languages.

Levels of Language

            The four levels of language are: phonemes, words, sentences, and texts. A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech made up of individual sounds that “…roughly correspond to letters of the alphabet…” (Willmingham, 2004, p. 413). Phonemes also help to distinguish words from one another (Britannica, 2010). About 46 phonemes exist in the English language, though the exact number varies according to experts. There are variations of phonemes that are so close in sound that they are hardly distinguishable; these variations are called allophones (Willmingham, 2004). The different phonemes form together in various combinations to create words, of which there are around 600,000 in the English language. Phonemes must be presented in a structured format so that they make sense. For example, many words begin with stop consonants (p,b,d) which cause air to be stopped in the vocal tract; and words beginning with two stop consonants are against the rules in English (Willmingham, 2004). Sentences are strings of words put together to form a grammatically understandable statement. Sentences are a complex part of language as far as how humans generally perceive grammar. Acceptable sentence structure is different from one language to the next, but cognitive psychologists agree there must be some form of a universal grammar in the structure of sentences. As words are streams of phonemes, and sentences are strings of words, so are texts strings of sentences combined to produce paragraphs. And just like the previous levels of language, texts rely on a structured set of rules to make sense. A person can string together many sentences, but if the context in each sentence do not relate to one another, the text is incomprehensible.

Processing in Cognitive Psychology

            Cognitive psychology focuses on “…language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, and psychology of reading” (Scholarpedia, 2010, para. 16). Cognitive psychologists study language, encoding and with access to the lexicon. The lexicon is the database of meanings of the sounds, gestures, and marks used in language. Willmingham defines lexicon as: “The mental dictionary, which has information stored about all the words a person knows. The lexicon stores the pronunciation, spelling, parts of speech of each word and has a pointer to another location in which the meaning is stored” (2004, p. 514). The brain hears the phoneme stream in speech, and compares the pronunciations with words in the lexicon. When the match is found for the phoneme stream, the cognitive system identifies the word, the spelling, and the meaning.

            Other studies in the process of language include parsing and representation, which are sentence-level processes, concepts, gist, inference, and semantic assumptions, which are general processes (Scholarpedia, 2010). Scientists have also developed computational models for studying lexical systems, parsing systems, representation systems, and reading aloud. Advancements in technology and neuroscience have provided cognitive imaging as a means to study language processes, and the dysfunctions associated with language.

 

Conclusion

            The use of different sounds and gestures to communicate thoughts to others, and have them understand the meanings, is the basic idea of language. Language is a complex cognitive process that is made up of different properties and levels, and that is unique to humans. While humans have the same abilities of communication as every other animal, the human brain evolved the ability to produce language, a separate form of communication. Language is communicative, arbitrary, structured, generative, and dynamic. Phonemes are the sounds that make up words, words combine to form sentences, and strings of sentences create texts. All four levels of language depend on a set of grammar rules and structure that give meaning to all the sounds and words. Pronunciation and spelling of words are stored in the lexicon, where the words are matched with meaning. Cognitive psychologists study the language processes with imaging techniques and computational models that aid in understanding the different systems associated with the lexicon, encoding, parsing, representation, and other general processes.

 References

Encyclopedia Britannica (2010). Phoneme. Retrieved on June 7, 2010 from

            http://www.reference.com/browse/phoneme

Merriam-Webster (2010). Language. Retrieved on June 4, 2010 from

            http://www.merriam-webster.com/netdict/language

Scholarpedia (2010). Cognitive psychology. Retrieved on June 4, 2010 from

            http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_psychology

Wilminham, D. T. (2004). Cognition: The thinking animal. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

            Pearson/Allyn & Bacon

Blahism: Cognitive Psychology

Definition of Cognitive Psychology

            Cognitive psychology is the study of how people gain and use knowledge. Cognitive psychologists seek to find the origin of knowledge and whether it is innate or gained through experience (Willmingham, 2007). The word “cognition” literally means “to know”; so, the study of human cognition focuses on mental abilities such as thinking, learning, and memory (Lu & Dosher, 2007). This paper will study the philosophical influence of, the addition of the scientific method to, and the assumptions made in cognitive psychology. Artificial intelligence and computer science are also deeply tied into cognitive psychology, and continue to be areas of interest and research.

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greek philosophers began pursuing knowledge and the sources of knowledge in the mind, and logged the first written records of those ideas. The written records of the time reflect the Greek philosophers’ ideas about how the mind works, namely how humans acquire knowledge (Willmingham, 2007). The ancient Greeks asked many questions, and developed many answers about how the mind works; however, it is not the answers, nor the questions that cognitive psychologists have found most useful. The greatest contributions of philosophy to cognitive psychology are the assumptions made that led to the questions being asked.  Two types of assumptions are typically made by psychologists: which parts of the brain are significant enough to study; and that the questions and ideas that form during a study are influenced by the beliefs about something (Willmingham, 2007). The ancient Greek philosophers may not have had the right answers, or even the right questions; but seeking how knowledge is attained and used in the human mind, set the path for the future of cognitive science. The free-thinking style embodied by the ancient Greek philosophers led to the assumptions that “the world can be understood and predicted” because physical events are not the random actions of a god; “humans are part of the physical world,” which makes human behavior predictable; and events of this world can be explained within the defines of the physical world (Willmingham, 2007, p. 7).

Introduction of Scientific Method

The Renaissance, meaning “re-birth,” signifies the birth of intellectuality and modern science; scientists realized a greater understanding of the world was not only possible but also worth exploring (Willingham, 2007). With a new scientific method to experiment with, scientists could gain empirical knowledge based on observation in addition to contemplation and logic. Thus, during the Renaissance period scientists learned that the earth revolves around the sun, thanks to Copernicus; the relation of time, speed, and distance of falling objects was formulated by Galileo; and gravity was discovered by Isaac Newton (Willingham, 2007). The reasoning stage of contemplating a hypothesis is either proved or disproved by the results of observation. One can observe human behavior, but it was impossible to study the physical origins of such behavior. Because scientists of the 17^th Century did not have magnetic resonance imaging or electroencephalograph machines to observe the inner workings of the mind, early physiological research contributed “…to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior (Cherry, 2010, para. 6). Now fast-forward 200-to-300 years to 1950s America, where behaviorism storms the field of psychology.

Behaviorism

In the early part of the 20^th Century, following Edward B. Titchener’s structuralism and William James’ functionalism, behaviorism dominated the discipline of psychology. Behaviorism focuses on the relationship between objective and observable behavior to conditioned stimuli (Cherry, 2010). In this manner, behavior was studied systematically with no consideration of genetic influence in human behavior, which was ultimately the undoing of behaviorism. Behaviorists were correct in thinking that some behavior could be defined through environmental means based on positive or negative reinforcement; humans do gain knowledge from experience through the environment. That does not mean however, that humans do not also have knowledge that originates from innate factors. Behaviorism failed to account for fixed-action patterns and critical periods, both of which are functions attributed to the nervous system which does not only respond “…to reward or punishment following an action” (Willmingham, 2007, p. 23). Cognitive psychology is the answer to the questions left by behaviorism; such as the use of language and the ability to strategize.

Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence

With the decline of behaviorism, scientists broadened the field of psychology by introducing new theories to explain human behavior. Computer technology allowed a different view on the brain, and how humans perceive, memorize, and utilize information. Computers calculate information with representations and processes. For example, the computer brain “sees” everything from numbers to images represented as a series of one’s and zero’s; the computer then processes the representations and produces a perceptible image (Willmingham, 2007). Scientists studying artificial intelligence have figured that the human brain may function similarly to the representation and processing functions of a computer. Humans process information which is the basis of thought and behavior. Information processing is based on representations through the environment, and processes of the representations. Information processing, in the human brain and in the computer, takes place in different modules that pass information to and from each other. These assumptions, according to Willmingham (2007), outline the information processing metaphor in association with the study of the human mind.  

Conclusion

            Cognitive psychology was not always the focus of previous psychologists and philosophers, but the ideas that cognitive psychology represent always have been a subject of interest and study. Ancient Greek philosophers did not have the knowledge or resources to study the mind accurately; but they could begin the thought processes necessary to make educated assumptions that contributed to the development of the disciplines of science and psychology. The utilization of the scientific method to study human behavior took large strides in the future of psychology, especially in America where behaviorism was the ruling theory of psychology until the second part of the 20^th Century. The idea that observable behavior is a result of conditioning and information learned through the environment, although a little close-minded, was an important step leading to the development of cognitive psychology. In addition to environmental factors, scientists take into consideration innate factors that affect behavior. Understanding how computers process information has had a tremendous effect on understanding the human brain, and continues to be relevant in the development of computer science and of cognitive psychology.

References

Cherry, K. (2010). The origins of psychology. About.com. Retrieved from

            http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychistory.htm

Cherry, K. (2010). What is behaviorism? About.com. Retrieved from

            http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm

Lu, Z. L. & Dosher, B. A. (2007). Cognitive psychology. Scholarpedia. Retrieved from

            http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_psychology

Willmingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

            Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Blahism: Phineas Gage & Cognitive Function

Phineas Gage and Cognitive Function

            The brain is responsible for how humans think, learn, remember, see, hear, and speak. The decisions made based on these perceptions are responsible for a person’s behavior and emotional reactions. The decision making process is a complex brain function that takes place via interconnected neurons throughout the cerebral cortex. The brain makes predictions about the appropriate responses to stimuli based on learned experience from previous outcomes. The inability to predict the consequences of an action results in poor decision-making behavior insensitive to all outcomes. Railroad worker Phineas Gage survived extreme damage to the prefrontal cortex of his brain; after his recovery he continued life with the physical and most intellectual skills intact. The damage to Gage’s brain did cause major changes in his behavior, though.  

Cerebral Cortex

“Perception, attention, emotion, planning and action, learning and memory, thinking, language and all other aspects of cognition all take place in the brain” (CNBC, 2009, para. 1). Cognitive function depends on the many subregions of the cerebral cortex, namely, the thalamus, amygdala, caudate and putamen, hippocampus, and cerebellum (Willmingham, 2007). Some of these structures, such as the caudate and putamen, are associated with more obscure cognitive functions, so the focus here will be on the amygdala, which is an important part in processing emotional information; and the hippocampus, which is involved in storing and retrieving memories. Advances in technology have allowed scientists an inside look at cognitive function in these areas of the brain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) are imaging techniques that show brain activity quite clearly. Scientists use these images to compare normal and dysfunctional brains; and create computer simulations of functions in the brain after simulated damage, so that they can better understand the behavioral deficits a patient experiences after brain injury or damage (CNBC, 2009). Understanding how normal and dysfunctional brains operate cognitive function will help researchers develop new ways to treat patients with severe brain damage because of injury or other brain-deteriorating disorders. Perhaps the most famous case in cognitive psychology is that of Phineas Gage, a railroad worker who miraculously survived a freak accident. Gage’s story has left an enormous amount of information for neurologists and psychologists regarding cognitive function.

Phineas Gage

In 1848 while working on the railroads in Vermont, Phineas Gage detonated an accidental explosion that launched his tamping iron, a three-foot long solid steel bar, through his cheekbone and out through the top of his head; irreparably damaging the left side of his brain in the frontal area. The area of the brain believed to be damaged was Gage’s ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) (Wagar & Thagard, 2004). Before his accident Gage worked as a foreman, and was considered to be efficient, well-balanced, and a successful businessman. Although Gage recovered physically enough to go back to work, he had become “…fitful, irreverent, and grossly profane, showing little deference for his fellow coworkers…” (Wagner & Thagard, 2004, p. 68). Contractors, who worked with Gage previously, were reluctant to rehire him after the accident, mostly because he was no longer efficient in making decisions regarding his own building plans, but also because of his unpredictable and irritable behavior. It is clear that the damage to Gage’s brain left him with a severe cognitive deficit, unable to control his inhibitions and emotional reactions.  Simon Gerhand states that damage to the posterior regions of the brain produce obvious dysfunction of cognitive ability, whereas damage to the frontal region usually does not affect intellectual function so much as it changes a person’s behavior, as was the case with Phineas Gage (1999). Anyone who ever met Phineas Gage after his accident would probably never know there was anything wrong with him; accept maybe that he was kind of a jerk, which are qualities that many people embody without damage to their brains. To the people that knew Gage, though, he was a completely different person after the accident, which left a strain on his professional and personal relationships.

Dysfunction of the Cortex

Damage to the prefrontal cortex can have negative effects on cognitive abilities such as planning, reasoning, and problem-solving. Prefrontal dysfunction is also prevalent in affective disorders such as schizophrenia, whereas ventromedial lesions show a dysfunction in the ability to “…experience appropriate emotional responses…,” which can impair decision-making (Gerhand, 1999, para. 2). Neuronal activity in the cortex is fueled by the experiences humans gain through the environment; the information is taken in, delivered, and processed by the interconnected neurons (CNBC, 2009). Somatic markers in the VMPFC convert emotional signals that influence decision-making by outlining positive and negative actions, and highlighting the options with the predicted highest positive outcomes. The predictions are based on memories of previous outcomes, which influence the prevalence of a positive or negative prediction. In a normal brain the amygdala, in association with the VMPFC, helps form memory traces, which enable a person to predict the outcome of an emotional response (Wagar & Thagard, 2004). The data produced by the correspondence between the VMPFC and the amygdala is forwarded to the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) where it is analyzed to be a correct response, and sent to the motor areas of the cortex to produce an emotional reaction (Wagar & Thagard, 2004). The NAcc acts as a gateway unlocked by the hippocampus, and which allows access to the VMPFC and the amygdala during the processing of somatic markers.

Conclusion

People like Phineas Gage that have experienced damage to the VMPFC lose the ability of communication through the NAcc gateway, which inhibits the process of somatic markers; thus retarding the ability “…to integrate cognitive and emotional information to discern the future consequences…” of one’s actions (Wagar & Thagard, 2004, p. 67). With the help of technology, scientists can explore the effects of damage to the frontal cortex on behavior, reasoning, and decision-making abilities. Dysfunctional behavior prompts the study of the origins of the behavior, and understanding why humans behave in certain ways can produce solutions to dysfunctional behavior. Understanding the origins of cognitive functions enables researchers to specify the areas of the brain responsible for different functions, which provides an avenue for the research of treatments to rectify cognitive dysfunction. 

References

Gerhand, S. (1999). Book review: The prefrontal cortex—executive and cognitive functions.

Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 122(5), pp. 994-995. Oxford University Press. Retrieved

From http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/122/5/994

The Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition (CNBC): Integrating the Sciences of Mind and

            Brain. (2009). Research in the CNBC. Retrieved from http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu.research

Wagar, B. M., & Thagard, P. (2004). Spiking phineas gage: A neurocomputational theory of

            Cognitive-affective integration in decision making. Psychological Review, 111(1).

            Retrieved from http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/spiking.pdf

Willmingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal (3^rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

            Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

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